---
title: "Simulations by cost · Simulation Hypothesis"
url: https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/costs
description: "How much computing each kind of simulation uses, from no computer at all to the largest machines on Earth."
license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
credit: "Ross Allan Dahl, Simulation Hypothesis (simulation-hypothesis.com)"
---

# Simulations by computing needed · 941 simulations

Roughly how much computing a serious run uses today, in operations per second, the Sandbox’s unit. For scale, the observable universe treated as a computer does about 10^104\. Every figure has a confidence tag, and most are rough.

Expand all Collapse all 

cost The largest supercomputers 16

About 10^18 operations per second and above: the largest supercomputers.

Wave dark matter simulations 10^19

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#fuzzy-dark-matter-waves)

Constrained simulations of the local universe 10^19

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#constrained-local-universe)

Earth-system digital twins 10^19

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#earth-system-digital-twins)

Global storm-resolving simulation 10^19

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#global-storm-resolving)

Nuclear lattice effective field theory 10^18

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#nuclear-lattice-effective-field-theory)

Laser wakefield acceleration 10^18

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#laser-wakefield-acceleration)

Cosmological emulators 10^18

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#cosmological-emulators)

Global cloud-resolving models 10^18

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#global-cloud-resolving-models)

Initial-condition large ensembles 10^18

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#climate-initial-condition-ensembles)

Physics-based seismic hazard 10^18

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#physics-based-seismic-hazard)

Geodynamo simulation 10^18

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#geodynamo)

Neural-network wavefunctions for molecules 10^18

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#neural-network-wavefunctions-electrons)

Generative models of crystals 10^18

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#generative-crystal-models)

Learned protein structure prediction 10^18

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#learned-structure-prediction)

Riemann zeta zero computation 10^18

[Full entry in Mathematics and computation ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mathematics-computation#riemann-zeta-zero-computation)

Nuclear stockpile simulation 10^18

[Full entry in Defence and conflict ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/defence-conflict#stockpile-simulation)

cost Supercomputers and brains 127

National supercomputers, and the conventional estimate for a human brain (about 10^16).

Cosmological N-body 10^17.5

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#cosmological-n-body)

Lattice QCD 10^17

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#lattice-qcd)

Flow-based sampling for lattice field theory 10^17

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#flow-based-lattice-sampling)

Fusion plasma turbulence 10^17

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#fusion-plasma)

Galaxy formation 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#galaxy-formation)

Cosmic reionization 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#reionization)

Massive-neutrino cosmological simulation 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#massive-neutrino-cosmology)

Modified-gravity structure formation 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#modified-gravity-nbody)

Synthetic sky survey catalogues and images 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#synthetic-sky-survey-images)

Core-collapse supernovae 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#supernova)

Giant-impact simulations 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#giant-impact-moon-formation)

Neutron star mergers 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#neutron-star-mergers)

Gravitational-wave template banks from numerical relativity 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#gravitational-wave-template-banks)

Neural inference for gravitational waves 10^17

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#gravitational-wave-neural-inference)

Earth system models 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#earth-system)

Palaeoclimate 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#paleoclimate)

Solar geoengineering 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#geoengineering-modelling)

Extreme-event attribution 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#extreme-event-attribution)

Volunteer-computed perturbed-physics ensembles 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#volunteer-perturbed-physics-ensembles)

Coupled carbon-cycle and climate simulation 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#coupled-carbon-climate)

Numerical weather prediction 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#weather-forecast)

Seasonal forecasting 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#seasonal-forecasting)

Atmospheric reanalysis 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#atmospheric-reanalysis)

Full-waveform seismic inversion 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#full-waveform-inversion)

Spectral-element seismic wave propagation 10^17

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#seismic-spectral-element)

Machine-learned interatomic potentials 10^17

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#machine-learned-interatomic-potentials)

Universal interatomic potentials 10^17

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#universal-interatomic-potentials)

Quantum Monte Carlo for electrons 10^17

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#quantum-monte-carlo-electrons)

Metadynamics and enhanced sampling 10^17

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#metadynamics-enhanced-sampling)

Whole virus particles 10^17

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#virus-particles)

Volunteer-computed molecular dynamics 10^17

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#volunteer-computing-molecular-dynamics)

Language-model social platform simulation 10^17

[Full entry in Human behaviour and society ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/human-society#llm-social-platform-simulation)

Turbulence 10^17

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#turbulence)

Learned humanoid locomotion 10^17

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#humanoid-locomotion-learning)

Interactive generative worlds 10^17

[Full entry in Minds, brains and artificial worlds ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/minds-computation#interactive-generative-worlds)

Learned real-world interactive simulators 10^17

[Full entry in Minds, brains and artificial worlds ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/minds-computation#real-world-interactive-simulators)

Generative driving world models 10^17

[Full entry in Minds, brains and artificial worlds ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/minds-computation#driving-world-models)

Digits of pi by computer 10^17

[Full entry in Mathematics and computation ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mathematics-computation#pi-digit-computation)

Learned algorithm and construction search 10^17

[Full entry in Mathematics and computation ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mathematics-computation#learned-algorithm-discovery)

Black hole mergers 10^16.5

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#numerical-relativity)

Generative calorimeter shower models 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#calorimeter-shower-generators)

Particle-in-cell plasma 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#particle-in-cell)

Inertial confinement implosion 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#inertial-confinement-fusion)

Tokamak edge pedestal and ELM modelling 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#tokamak-edge-pedestal-elm)

Tokamak whole-device modelling 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#tokamak-whole-device-modelling)

Collisionless shock simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#collisionless-shock-hybrid)

Learned plasma control in simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#reinforcement-learning-plasma-control)

Quantum many-body systems 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#quantum-many-body)

Topological quantum matter 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#topological-quantum-matter)

Neural-network quantum states 10^16

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#neural-network-quantum-states)

Intergalactic medium and the Lyman-alpha forest 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#lyman-alpha-forest)

Self-interacting dark matter simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#self-interacting-dark-matter)

Weak-lensing ray tracing through simulated universes 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#weak-lensing-ray-tracing)

Differentiable cosmological simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#differentiable-cosmological-simulation)

Star formation 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#star-formation)

Common-envelope evolution 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#common-envelope-evolution)

Collapsar and gamma-ray burst jets 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#gamma-ray-burst-collapsar)

Planetary interiors and dynamos 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#planetary-interiors)

Planetesimal formation by streaming instability 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#planetesimal-streaming-instability)

Accretion discs and jets 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#accretion)

Solar interior and dynamo 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#solar-dynamo)

Magnetar magnetosphere and flare simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#magnetar-magnetosphere)

Tidal disruption of stars by black holes 10^16

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#tidal-disruption-events)

Regional climate downscaling 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#regional-climate-downscaling)

Superparameterisation 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#superparameterization)

Learned subgrid parameterisation 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#learned-subgrid-parameterisation)

Tropical cyclones 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#tropical-cyclones)

Severe convective storms 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#severe-storms)

Generative ensemble weather forecasting 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#generative-ensemble-weather)

Ensemble weather forecasting 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#ensemble-forecasting)

Ocean circulation 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#ocean-circulation)

Earthquakes and seismic waves 10^16

[Full entry in Earth and climate ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/earth-climate#earthquakes)

Computational materials screening 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#materials-screening)

Ab initio molecular dynamics 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#ab-initio-molecular-dynamics)

Real-time electron dynamics 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#real-time-tddft)

Learned density functionals 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#learned-density-functionals)

Combustion 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#combustion)

Reactive force-field dynamics 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#reactive-force-field-dynamics)

Learned equilibrium samplers 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#learned-equilibrium-sampling)

Coarse-grained molecular dynamics 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#coarse-grained-molecular-dynamics)

Enhanced-sampling free-energy methods 10^16

[Full entry in Chemistry and materials ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/chemistry-materials#enhanced-sampling-free-energy)

Protein folding and dynamics 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#protein-dynamics)

Membranes and ion channels 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#membranes)

Generative protein ensembles 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#generative-protein-ensembles)

Cell perturbation-response models 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#perturbation-response-models)

The heart 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#heart)

Neural predictive models of sensory brain areas 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#neural-predictive-digital-twins)

Agent-based epidemics 10^16

[Full entry in Life and medicine ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/life-medicine#agent-epidemics)

Language-model macroeconomic agents 10^16

[Full entry in Human behaviour and society ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/human-society#llm-macroeconomic-agents)

Language-grounded negotiation agents 10^16

[Full entry in Human behaviour and society ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/human-society#llm-negotiation-diplomacy)

Wind-farm large-eddy simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#wind-farm-large-eddy-simulation)

Learned legged locomotion 10^16

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#legged-locomotion-learning)

Learned drone racing 10^16

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#learned-drone-racing)

Rocket engine simulation 10^16

[Full entry in Engineering and technology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/engineering#rocket-propulsion)

Self-play strategy training 10^16

[Full entry in Minds, brains and artificial worlds ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/minds-computation#self-play-training)

REM dreaming 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#rem-dreaming)

Lucid dreaming 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#lucid-dreaming)

Hippocampal replay in rats 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#hippocampal-replay)

Threat-simulation theory of dreams 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#threat-simulation-theory)

Sleep-dependent memory consolidation 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#memory-consolidation-sleep)

Hypnagogic imagery 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#hypnagogic-imagery)

Mental rehearsal in athletes 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#mental-rehearsal-athletes)

Episodic future thinking 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#episodic-future-thinking)

Counterfactual thinking 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#counterfactual-thinking)

Mental rotation 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#mental-rotation)

Mental navigation 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#mental-navigation)

Mind-wandering and daydreaming 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#mind-wandering)

Theory of mind 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#theory-of-mind)

Empathy as simulation theory 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#empathy-simulation-theory)

Mirror systems 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#mirror-systems)

Audience design 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#audience-design)

Visual perspective-taking 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#perspective-taking)

Joint attention 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#joint-attention)

Children's pretend play 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#pretend-play-children)

Animal play as practice 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#animal-play-practice)

Imaginary companions 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#imaginary-companions)

Sociodramatic play 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#sociodramatic-play)

Paracosms 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#paracosms)

Object play in primates 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#primate-object-play)

Predictive processing 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#predictive-processing)

Motor forward models 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#motor-forward-models)

The body schema 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#body-schema)

Hallucination as uncontrolled prediction 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#hallucination-uncontrolled-prediction)

Blind-spot filling-in 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#blind-spot-filling-in)

Interoception 10^16

[Full entry in Minds as simulators ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/mind-simulations#interoception)

Climate effects of nuclear war 10^16

[Full entry in Defence and conflict ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/defence-conflict#nuclear-winter)

Massively multiplayer worlds 10^16

[Full entry in Video games ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/video-games#mmo)

cost Clusters 67

A university cluster or a rack of accelerators.

Collider event generation 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#collider-events)

Detector response 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#detector-response)

Neutrino detector simulation 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#neutrino-detectors)

Nuclear structure 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#nuclear-structure)

Reactor core physics 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#reactor-core)

Time-dependent nuclear mean-field dynamics 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#nuclear-tdhf)

Neutron-star crust pasta dynamics 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#nuclear-pasta-md)

Plasma equilibrium and stability 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#plasma-equilibrium-stability)

Magnetic reconnection 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#magnetic-reconnection)

Stellarator configuration optimisation 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#stellarator-optimisation)

Quantum computer emulation 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#quantum-circuit-emulation)

Quantum error correction 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#quantum-error-correction)

Learned error-correction decoders 10^15

[Full entry in Fundamental physics ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/fundamental-physics#neural-error-correction-decoders)

Supernova neutrino flavour evolution 10^15

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#supernova-neutrino-flavour)

Stellar surface convection simulation 10^15

[Full entry in Astronomy and cosmology ▸](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/simulations/astronomy-cosmology#stellar-surface-convection)

Interstellar magnetised turbulence 10^15

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Planet formation 10^15

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cost A single workstation 233

A desktop, a games console, or a workstation with a graphics card.

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Language-model behavioural experiments 10^14

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Simulated web environments for agents 10^13

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Relationship simulation 10^12.5

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cost Portable devices 432

A phone, a laptop, an older machine, or less.

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Dusty plasma and Yukawa-system simulation 10^12

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Integrated assessment models 10^12

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Urban surface energy-balance modelling 10^12

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Rivers and floods 10^12

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Polymer self-consistent field theory 10^12

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Alloy cluster expansion 10^12

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Crystal plasticity finite-element modelling 10^12

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Micromagnetic simulation 10^12

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Gene regulatory networks 10^12

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Brain-stimulation field models 10^12

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Mobility-network epidemic models 10^12

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Scenario modelling hubs 10^12

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Clinical trial design simulation 10^12

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Drug repurposing network models 10^12

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Termite mound building 10^12

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Slime mould aggregation 10^12

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Bacterial swarming and quorum sensing 10^12

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Birdsong and vocal learning models 10^12

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Origin of life 10^12

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Crop breeding simulation 10^12

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Multi-model crop ensembles 10^12

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Digestion and gastric flow simulation 10^12

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Cognitive architectures 10^12

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Mass gathering disease risk modelling 10^12

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Macroeconomic models 10^12

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Detailed neuron models 10^12

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Simulated small organisms 10^12

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Soft-body vehicle crash simulation 10^12

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Terrarium and habitat sandboxes 10^12

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Virtual reality social worlds 10^12

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Quantum network simulation 10^11

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Kinetic Monte Carlo 10^11

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Organic semiconductor charge transport 10^11

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Tumour evolution agent-based models 10^11

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Microbial community metabolic models 10^11

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Tumour-induced blood vessel growth 10^11

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Bacterial colony growth and biofilms 10^11

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Virtual-population drug exposure models 10^11

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Bone adaptation and implant remodelling 10^11

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Virtual anatomical phantoms for imaging 10^11

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Disease burden and health economic modelling 10^11

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Malaria transmission and intervention models 10^11

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Drug formulation and delivery modelling 10^11

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Ant colony foraging 10^11

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Honeybee colonies 10^11

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Movement and foraging 10^11

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Migration and navigation 10^11

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Evolution of behaviour 10^11

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Fisheries and wildlife management 10^11

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Species ranges 10^11

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Coalescent and phylogenetic simulation 10^11

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Host-parasite coevolution 10^11

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Pest and plant disease spread 10^11

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Livestock disease outbreak models 10^11

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Livestock breeding and genetics 10^11

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Crowd emotion and behavioural contagion 10^11

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Agent-based exchange simulators 10^11

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Insurance catastrophe models 10^11

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Flash-crash market models 10^11

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Hunter-gatherer economies 10^11

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Ancient trade and exchange 10^11

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Monument construction and engineering reconstruction 10^11

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Computable general equilibrium modelling 10^11

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Sentencing and recidivism risk modelling 10^11

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Lattice-gas automata for fluid flow 10^11

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Orbital-debris and satellite-collision modelling 10^11

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Shared autonomous vehicle fleets 10^11

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Supply chain digital twins 10^11

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Telecom traffic engineering 10^11

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Self-organised criticality 10^11

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Swarm intelligence algorithms 10^11

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Random Boolean networks 10^11

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Continuous cellular automata 10^11

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Neural cellular automata 10^11

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Continuous artificial life 10^11

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Experimental mathematics searches 10^11

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Automated theorem proving search 10^11

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SAT and constraint solving 10^11

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Security protocol verification 10^11

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Abstract interpretation 10^11

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Computer architecture simulation 10^11

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Full-system simulation 10^11

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Dental simulators 10^11

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Anaesthesia simulators 10^11

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Emergency incident command simulators 10^11

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Historical war games 10^11

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Autonomous cyber-defence gyms 10^11

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War economic and reconstruction modelling 10^11

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Rigid body dynamics for animation 10^11

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Virtual idols and influencers 10^11

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Performance-captured digital characters 10^11

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Machinima 10^11

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Roguelikes 10^11

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Rhythm games 10^11

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Augmented reality pets 10^11

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One-component plasma simulation 10^10

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Fuel-cell membrane and transport modelling 10^10

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Pore-network modelling 10^10

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Gut microbiome community models 10^10

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Fracture healing simulation 10^10

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Cochlear mechanics 10^10

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Synthetic patient record generation 10^10

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Pharmacodynamic modelling 10^10

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Dynamic energy budget modelling 10^10

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Food webs 10^10

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Plankton ecosystem models 10^10

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Speciation and macroevolution models 10^10

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Sexual selection and mate choice evolution 10^10

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Reserve and corridor design 10^10

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Invasive species spread 10^10

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Rewilding and trophic cascade modelling 10^10

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Crop growth and yield models 10^10

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Soil water and nutrient transport 10^10

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Soil erosion and land degradation 10^10

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Precision agriculture optimisation 10^10

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Food supply chain simulation 10^10

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Famine early warning models 10^10

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Social cognition and theory-of-mind models 10^10

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Emotion and affect modelling 10^10

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Choice under risk and uncertainty modelling 10^10

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Protest mobilisation network models 10^10

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Policy diffusion network models 10^10

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Energy-system capacity-planning models 10^10

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Internet worm propagation models 10^10

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Percolation simulation 10^10

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Lightweight network emulation 10^10

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Negotiation and diplomacy training simulations 10^10

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Mech combat simulation 10^10

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Station systems simulation 10^10

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Musculoskeletal models for surgery 10^9

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Compartment epidemic models 10^9

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Digital contact-tracing models 10^9

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Antimicrobial resistance spread 10^9

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Cancer screening microsimulation 10^9

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Closed-loop diabetes control in silico 10^9

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Predator–prey dynamics 10^9

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Individual-based ecological models 10^9

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Honeybee colony and landscape models 10^9

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Size-spectrum ecosystem models 10^9

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Neutral community models 10^9

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Irrigation scheduling 10^9

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Agricultural catchment pollution models 10^9

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Agrivoltaic light-sharing models 10^9

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Livestock herd and feed models 10^9

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Grazing and pasture management 10^9

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Aquaculture and fish farming 10^9

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Fermentation process modelling 10^9

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Baking and thermal food processing 10^9

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Cold chain and spoilage modelling 10^9

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Food safety and traceability simulation 10^9

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Models of decision-making 10^9

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Residential sorting 10^9

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Synthetic population generation 10^9

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Collective action and tipping-point models 10^9

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Collective estimation and crowd wisdom 10^9

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Housing market agent-based models 10^9

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Algorithmic pricing collusion 10^9

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Jury decision-making simulation 10^9

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Soft robot simulation 10^9

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Airspace fast-time simulation 10^9

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Agent-based electricity markets 10^9

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Cascading-blackout models 10^9

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Gas pipeline network transients 10^9

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Neural mass and field models 10^9

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Artificial chemistry 10^9

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Simulated robot soccer 10^9

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Monte Carlo estimation of constants 10^9

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Fractal-set rendering 10^9

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Sandpile self-organised criticality 10^9

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Computer-assisted proof by exhaustive case checking 10^9

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Validated numerics 10^9

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Statistical model checking 10^9

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Property-based random testing 10^9

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Operating system scheduler simulation 10^9

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Empirical algorithm performance testing 10^9

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The intuitive physics engine 10^9

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Childbirth simulators 10^9

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Virtual human patients 10^9

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Ultrasound training simulators 10^9

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Robotic surgery simulators 10^9

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Eye surgery simulators 10^9

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Endoscopy simulators 10^9

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Political–military crisis games 10^9

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Swarm combat simulation 10^9

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Chemical, biological and radiological hazard plumes 10^9

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Position-based dynamics 10^9

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Generative art systems 10^9

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Physically based sound effects 10^9

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Surgery and medical games 10^9

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Idle and incremental 10^9

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Auto-battlers 10^9

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Interactive fiction 10^9

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Visual novels and narrative games 10^9

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Word and letter puzzles 10^9

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Match-three and tile-swap puzzles 10^9

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Number and grid logic puzzles 10^9

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Escape-room puzzles 10^9

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Galactic chemical evolution 10^8

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Astrochemical reaction networks 10^8

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Diffusion-limited aggregation 10^8

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Cancer drug response and resistance dynamics 10^8

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Vocal fold and voice production models 10^8

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Obesity and diet agent-based models 10^8

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Organ allocation policy simulation 10^8

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Metapopulation dynamics 10^8

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Coral reef resilience models 10^8

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Pollination service across landscapes 10^8

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Wind seed and pollen dispersal models 10^8

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Gene drive population models 10^8

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Farm agent-based models of land use and adoption 10^8

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Plant architecture growth models 10^8

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Land-use change agent models 10^8

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Aquaculture pond bioenergetics 10^8

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Quantitative microbial risk assessment 10^8

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Migration under climate stress 10^8

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Processor thermal modelling 10^8

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Stacked chip thermal modelling 10^8

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Airport airside simulation 10^8

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Container terminal simulation 10^8

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Attractor memory networks 10^8

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Artificial immune models 10^8

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Blockchain consensus simulation 10^8

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Search and rescue drift planning 10^8

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L-system plant modelling 10^8

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Live-coded music and visuals 10^8

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Social deduction games 10^8

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Fishing simulation 10^8

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Within-host virus dynamics 10^7

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Epidemics on contact networks 10^7

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Mosquito population dynamics 10^7

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Ambulance and fire station deployment models 10^7

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Locust marching bands 10^7

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Trophic mass-balance ecosystem models 10^7

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Lake eutrophication models 10^7

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Greenhouse climate models 10^7

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Misinformation and rumour spread 10^7

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Electricity market agent-based models 10^7

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Crime hotspot dynamics 10^7

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Core War battles 10^7

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Biological attack response models 10^7

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Human mobility and migration models 10^6

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Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models 10^6

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Kinetic wealth exchange models 10^6

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Sterile insect release models 10^5

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cost No computer 66

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