---
title: "Mti wa maadili · kanuni zetu zilikotoka, na zinakokwenda · Dhana ya Uigaji"
url: https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics
description: "Jinsi kanuni za kuishi pamoja zilivyokua kutoka seli zinazoshirikiana na jamii za wanyama hadi sheria zilizoandikwa."
license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
credit: "Ross Allan Dahl, Dhana ya Uigaji (simulation-hypothesis.com)"
---

# Mti wa maadili · kanuni zetu zilikotoka, na zinakokwenda

Kanuni za kuishi pamoja ni za kale kuliko uandishi na kuliko spishi yetu. Fikiria seli zinazodhibiti wadanganyifu, popo wanaolipa mlo, sokwe wanaofanya amani. Nodi za bendi ya kwanza zimewekewa alama kuwa zimeonekana katika spishi zilizo hai au zinakisiwa kwa mababu. Sheria iliyoandikwa na dini iliyofunuliwa zilifuata. Kando yake, tangu mwanzo, zilikwenda mila zilizoishi bila mtoa sheria wa kimungu: maadili ya Konfusio, Jaini na Kibuddha, umaterialisti wa India, kisha mstari wa Kigiriki na baadaye wa Ulaya unaouliza jinsi ya kuenenda pale hakuna mungu anayetazama. Baada yake zinakuja kanuni za uzoefu wako mwenyewe, na upanuzi mrefu wa nani kanuni zinawalinda, na gharama yake kwa maisha ya porini na ya kweli. Mti unaishia kwenye maswali yasiyo na jibu. Hakuna linalojibiwa hapa.

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Kanuni zisizoandikwa

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Gharama ya ulinzi

undated · Iliyoonekana Zuia anayenufaika bila kuchangia zaidi ya miaka bilioni 1 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa Makubaliano ya seli nyingi zaidi ya miaka bilioni 1 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa Changanya jeni zenu miaka milioni 450 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa Kuwajali wadogo 1964 · Wazo Wasaidie jamaa zako 1979 · Iliyoonekana Patana baada ya ugomvi 1983 · Iliyoonekana Waonye jamaa pamoja na seli nyingi · Iliyoonekana Saratani huvunja kanuni 1971, 1981 · Wazo Rudisha fadhila zaidi ya miaka milioni 66 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa Malkia mmoja, wafanyakazi wengi 2003 · Iliyoonekana Mgawo wa haki 1989 · Iliyoonekana Dhibiti wanaotaga mayai 1984 · Iliyoonekana Mlishe mwenzako mwenye njaa wa kulala 1989 · Iliyoonekana Shiriki, na wengine wawe na deni kwako jamii za wawindaji-wakusanyaji · Inayokisiwa Wafanyakazi wanamtawala bosi 1990s–2005 · Inayokisiwa Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu takriban 2100 KK Sheria za kwanza zilizoandikwa takriban 1754 KK Kanuni ya Hammurabi milenia ya kwanza KK Amri Kumi takriban karne ya 6–5 KK · Wazo Usidhuru uhai wowote takriban 500 KK · Wazo Majukumu, taratibu na utu takriban karne ya 5 KK · Wazo Amri tano takriban karne ya 5 KK · Wazo Hakuna miungu, hakuna maisha baada ya kifo takriban 500 KK na kuendelea · Wazo Kanuni ya Dhahabu takriban 380 KK · Wazo Ni nzuri kwa sababu Mungu anasema hivyo? takriban 375 KK · Wazo Pete ya Gyges karne ya 5–4 KK · Wazo Kujali bila daraja takriban 300 KK na kuendelea · Wazo Ishi kwa akili na maumbile karne ya 4 KK · Wazo Machipukizi ya wema takriban 300 KK · Wazo Miungu haitazami takriban 340 KK · Wazo Fadhila ni mazoea takriban karne ya 3 KK Ashoka analinda wanyama karne ya 4–2 KK · Wazo Karamu ya ndege wa baharini karne ya 1 BK · Wazo Mpende jirani yako takriban karne ya 5–8 · Wazo Ukweli wa pande nyingi karne ya 3 KK · Wazo Asili ya binadamu ni mbaya karne ya 7 BK · Wazo Sheria kutoka ufunuo karne ya 8–13 · Wazo Akili au ufunuo? 1265–1274 · Wazo Sheria ya asili 1689 · Wazo Haki kutoka maumbile 1739–1740 · Wazo Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’ 1785 · Wazo Jipe sheria 1789–1861 · Wazo Hesabu matokeo 1880 · Wazo Kama hakuna Mungu 1844 · Wazo Hakuna kilicho juu ya nafsi 1871 · Wazo Dhamiri kutoka silika 1789 · Wazo Je, wanaweza kuteseka 1859 · Wazo Kanuni ya madhara 1882 · Wazo Kifo cha Mungu 1933, 1973, 2003 Humanist Manifestos 1942 · Wazo Ishi bila maana iliyotolewa 1945–1946 · Wazo Kuwepo kabla ya asili 1953–1955 · Wazo Chagua bila kujua 1948 Tamko la Haki za Binadamu 1971 · Wazo Pazia la ujinga 1958–1984 · Wazo Chagua wewe ni nani 1973 · Wazo Uchovu wa kuishi milele 1973 · Wazo Mtu wa mwisho 1972 · Wazo Ulezi wa kulazimisha 1974 · Wazo Mashine ya uzoefu tangu zamani za kale · Wazo Fikiria wewe pekee ndiye uliyepo 1975 · Wazo Animal Liberation 1984 · Wazo Utambulisho si kinachojalisha 1981 · Wazo The Expanding Circle 1983 · Wazo The Case for Animal Rights 1980–1984 · Wazo Maisha ya porini yana thamani 2007–2016 · Wazo Pazia, spishi zote 2006 · Wazo Uwezo kwa wanyama 2012 Tamko la Cambridge 2010 · Wazo Wasaidie wanyama wa porini 1998 · Wazo Kurejesha porini 2013 Pomboo kama watu 2018 · Wazo Wanyama kama malengo 2015 · Wazo Utetezi wa haki za AI 2014–2019 Sandra orangutani 2017 Mto kama mtu wa kisheria 2021 Mapitio ya kaa na pweza 2013–2015 Hifadhi au porini 2015 Haki ya kuchagua hatari 2022 · Wazo Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika 2021 · Wazo Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali 2021 · Wazo Simamisha mateso ya sintetiki 2022 Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 ya Uingereza 2023 Viashiria vya ufahamu wa AI 2024 Tamko la New York 2024 · Wazo Taking AI welfare seriously Swali wazi Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi Swali wazi Miili mingi, kiumbe kimoja Swali wazi Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki Swali wazi Haki kutoka ndani ya uigaji Swali wazi Kuchagua maisha pepe 

Inapoanzia Onyesha ▴ 

Anzia hapa

## Inapoanzia

Kila kitu kinakua kutoka mzizi mmoja: seli zinazomzuia mnufaika bila kuchangia , kanuni ya kale kuliko zote. Kutoka hapo mti unatawanyika kuelekea miili, familia na jamii.

Maendeleo yako yanabaki kwenye kivinjari hiki pekee. Ukifuta data ya tovuti, mti unaanza upya.

Mti mzima kama maandishi · kila nodi kwa mpangilio, kwa visomaji vya skrini, vivinjari vya maandishi na visomaji vya mashine. Nodi zilezile za ramani

Tarehe ni miaka ya zama za kawaida isipokuwa zimewekwa alama KK au KWK. Tarehe za mageuzi ni miaka iliyopita. Kila nodi ina anwani thabiti, inayoonyeshwa baada yake. Hatujibu maswali yasiyo na jibu hapa. Kila moja linaorodhesha fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi.

## Kanuni zisizoandikwa

1. **Zuia anayenufaika bila kuchangia** (asili haina tarehe; ilijaribiwa 2004 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Bakteria wengi hutoa molekuli za gharama, kama siderofori zinazokusanya chuma, zinazosaidia kila seli iliyo karibu. Mutanti wanaoacha kulipa gharama lakini bado wanatumia bidhaa wanaweza kuenea. Griffin, West na Buckling (2004) walionyesha katika Pseudomonas aeruginosa kuwa kiasi cha ushirikiano kinachosalia kinategemea mambo mawili. Moja ni jinsi majirani walivyo na uhusiano wa karibu. Jingine ni kiwango wanachoshindana.  
Ilisababisha: [Makubaliano ya seli nyingi](#node-e-multicell) ; [Changanya jeni zenu](#node-e-sex)  
Chanzo: [Griffin, West & Buckling, ‘Cooperation and competition in pathogenic bacteria’, Nature 430 (2004) 1024–1027](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02744)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-pubgoods](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-pubgoods)
2. **Makubaliano ya seli nyingi** (angalau miaka bilioni 1 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Katika mwili wa seli nyingi, seli nyingi huacha uzazi wao wenyewe. Ni mstari wa seli za uzazi tu unaopitisha jeni. Hayo ni makubaliano ya ushirikiano kati ya seli. Kisukuku cha zamani zaidi chenye tarehe thabiti chenye seli zilizotofautiana ni mwani mwekundu Bangiomorpha, wenye umri wa takriban miaka bilioni 1.05\. Kuna madai ya yukariyoti za seli nyingi za zamani zaidi. Asili ya kweli ni ya awali zaidi, na imetokea mara nyingi.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Zuia anayenufaika bila kuchangia](#node-e-pubgoods)  
Ilisababisha: [Saratani huvunja kanuni](#node-e-cancer)  
Chanzo: [Gibson et al., ‘Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis’, Geology 46 (2018) 135–138](https://authors.library.caltech.edu/83811)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-multicell](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-multicell)
3. **Changanya jeni zenu** (zaidi ya miaka bilioni 1 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Katika uzazi wa kijinsia, watu wawili kila mmoja hutoa nusu ya jenomu ya kizazi kijacho. Ni kitendo cha pamoja, kwa hiyo seli zilihitaji kanuni kuhusu jeni za nani zinapita. Jenomiki linganishi zinaonyesha kuwa meiosisi na jinsia vilikuwepo tayari katika babu mkuu wa mwisho wa yukariyoti zilizo hai. Kwa hiyo mazoea hayo ni ya zaidi ya miaka bilioni moja.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Zuia anayenufaika bila kuchangia](#node-e-pubgoods)  
Ilisababisha: [Kuwajali wadogo](#node-e-parental)  
Chanzo: [Speijer, Lukes & Elias, ‘Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life’, PNAS 112 (2015) 8827–8834](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501725112)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-sex](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-sex)
4. **Kuwajali wadogo** (takriban miaka milioni 450 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Krasteshia ostrakodi wa Ordovician, wenye umri wa takriban miaka milioni 450, walihifadhiwa wakiwa na mayai na viinitete ndani ya gamba. Huo ni ushahidi wa moja kwa moja wa kisukuku wa utunzaji wa watoto. Utunzaji maana yake ni kulipa gharama kulinda kuishi kwa kiumbe kingine. Hiki ndicho kisa cha zamani zaidi katika mti huu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Changanya jeni zenu](#node-e-sex)  
Ilisababisha: [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Chanzo: [Siveter et al., ‘Exceptionally preserved 450-million-year-old Ordovician ostracods with brood care’, Current Biology 24 (2014) 801–806](https://news.yale.edu/2014/03/14/found-tiny-ancient-crustaceans-buried-alive-eggs-and-embryos)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-parental](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-parental)
5. **Wasaidie jamaa zako** (kanuni ilitajwa 1964 · Wazo)  
Hamilton (1964) alionyesha kuwa jeni ya kusaidia wengine inaweza kuenea. Huenea kama gharama kwa msaidizi ni ndogo kuliko faida kwa aliyesaidiwa, ikipimwa kwa jinsi walivyo na uhusiano wa karibu. Kanuni hii ya ufaafu jumuishi ndiyo mahali pa kawaida pa kuanzia kueleza kwa nini wanyama huwasaidia jamaa zao.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kuwajali wadogo](#node-e-parental)  
Ilisababisha: [Rudisha fadhila](#node-e-reciprocity) ; [Malkia mmoja, wafanyakazi wengi](#node-e-eusocial) ; [Mlishe mwenzako mwenye njaa wa kulala](#node-e-bats) ; [Waonye jamaa](#node-e-prairie) ; [Patana baada ya ugomvi](#node-e-chimp-repair) ; [The Expanding Circle](#node-c-circle81)  
Chanzo: [Hamilton, ‘The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II’, J. Theoretical Biology 7 (1964) 1–52](https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193%2864%2990038-4)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-kin](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-kin)
6. **Rudisha fadhila** (nadharia 1971, 1981 · Wazo)  
Trivers (1971) alisema kuwa kuwasaidia wasio jamaa kunaweza kubadilika kimageuzi pale wasaidizi wanapokutana tena na fadhila inarudishwa. Axelrod na Hamilton (1981) waliendesha mashindano ya kompyuta. Yalionyesha kuwa ushirikiano wa masharti unaweza kudumu kati ya wachezaji wenye maslahi binafsi.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Ilisababisha: [Mlishe mwenzako mwenye njaa wa kulala](#node-e-bats) ; [Mgawo wa haki](#node-e-capuchin) ; [Shiriki, na wengine wawe na deni kwako](#node-e-foodshare)  
Chanzo: [Trivers, ‘The evolution of reciprocal altruism’, Q. Rev. Biol. 46 (1971) 35–57; Axelrod & Hamilton, Science 211 (1981) 1390–1396](https://doi.org/10.1086/406755)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-reciprocity](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-reciprocity)
7. **Malkia mmoja, wafanyakazi wengi** (zaidi ya miaka milioni 66 iliyopita · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Katika makundi ya sisimizi wengi wa kike hawazai. Wanamfanyia malkia kazi. Nadharia ya ufaafu jumuishi ilibuniwa kueleza mgawanyo huo. Filojenia ya molekuli yenye tarehe inaweka mseto mkuu wa siafu katika kipindi cha Cretaceous ya Mwisho hadi Eocene ya Mapema. Mababu wa familia ndogo nyingi ni wa awali zaidi.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Ilisababisha: [Dhibiti wanaotaga mayai](#node-e-police)  
Chanzo: [Moreau, Bell, Vila, Archibald & Pierce, ‘Phylogeny of the ants: diversification in the age of angiosperms’, Science 312 (2006) 101–104](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1124891)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-eusocial](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-eusocial)
8. **Saratani huvunja kanuni** (wa zamani kama viumbe vya seli nyingi · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Aktipis na wenzake wanapitia saratani kama kushindwa kwa ushirikiano kati ya seli. Inavunja kanuni za kupunguza mgawanyiko, kufa kwa ratiba, kugawana kazi, kushiriki rasilimali na kuweka tishu zinazozunguka salama. Wanapata ukuaji usio na mpangilio unaofanana na saratani katika kila aina ya maisha ya seli nyingi waliyoichunguza.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Makubaliano ya seli nyingi](#node-e-multicell)  
Ilisababisha: [Dhibiti wanaotaga mayai](#node-e-police)  
Chanzo: [Aktipis et al., ‘Cancer across the tree of life: cooperation and cheating in multicellularity’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 370 (2015) 20140219](https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0219)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-cancer](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-cancer)
9. **Dhibiti wanaotaga mayai** (imeonekana 1989 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Katika makundi ya nyuki wa asali, wafanyakazi hula mayai yaliyotagwa na wafanyakazi wengine. Kwa njia hiyo watoto wa malkia ndio wanaolelewa. Ratnieks na Wenseleers walipitia udhibiti kama huo katika jamii za wadudu. Wanauelezea kama njia ya kukandamiza watu wanaozaa kwa gharama ya kundi.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Malkia mmoja, wafanyakazi wengi](#node-e-eusocial) ; [Saratani huvunja kanuni](#node-e-cancer)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki](#node-q-cohesion)  
Chanzo: [Ratnieks & Visscher, ‘Worker policing in the honeybee’, Nature 342 (1989) 796–797; Ratnieks & Wenseleers, ‘Policing insect societies’, Science 307 (2005) 54–55](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106934)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-police](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-police)
10. **Mlishe mwenzako mwenye njaa wa kulala** (imeonekana 1984 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Wilkinson (1984) alipata kuwa popo wa damu wa porini hurudisha damu kutoka tumboni kwa wenzao wa kulala walioshindwa kula. Kushiriki kulitegemea uhusiano wa damu na nafasi ya kurudisha fadhila, kila moja peke yake. Utafiti wa baadaye wa Carter na Wilkinson ulipata kuwa msaada wa zamani hutabiri kushiriki vizuri zaidi kuliko uhusiano wa damu. Kurudishiana huko kuliungwa mkono, hakukuthibitishwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Rudisha fadhila](#node-e-reciprocity) ; [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Chanzo: [Wilkinson, ‘Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat’, Nature 308 (1984) 181–184](https://doi.org/10.1038/308181a0)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-bats](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-bats)
11. **Waonye jamaa** (imeonekana 1983 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Hoogland (1983) alichunguza kupiga kelele za tahadhari kwa mbwa wa nyasi wenye mkia mweusi (prairie dog). Aliripoti kuwa wapigaji wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kuonya jamaa wa karibu wanapokuwa karibu. Muhtasari wa baadaye unapanua mwelekeo huo kwa jamaa wa mbali zaidi.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Chanzo: [Hoogland, ‘Nepotism and alarm calling in the black-tailed prairie dog’, Animal Behaviour 31 (1983) 472–479](https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472%2883%2980068-2)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-prairie](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-prairie)
12. **Mgawo wa haki** (imeonekana 2003 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
Brosnan na de Waal (2003) waliripoti kuwa nyani aina ya kapuchini walikataa zawadi waliyokuwa wameikubali awali, mara mwenzao alipopata bora zaidi kwa kazi ileile. Maoni katika Nature yalisema kuwa matokeo yanaonyesha kukataa zawadi mbaya zaidi pale iliyo bora inapoonekana. Ilisema hayaonyeshi kwa lazima chuki dhidi ya kutokuwa na usawa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Rudisha fadhila](#node-e-reciprocity)  
Ilisababisha: [Shiriki, na wengine wawe na deni kwako](#node-e-foodshare)  
Chanzo: [Brosnan & de Waal, ‘Monkeys reject unequal pay’, Nature 425 (2003) 297–299](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-capuchin](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-capuchin)
13. **Patana baada ya ugomvi** (imeonekana 1979 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
De Waal na van Roosmalen (1979) walipata katika Bustani ya Wanyama ya Arnhem kuwa sokwe waliopigana waligusana kimwili muda mfupi baadaye. Waliita hili upatanisho. Utafiti wa baadaye wa sokwe wa porini ulipata upatanisho kuwa nadra zaidi kuliko kwa sokwe waliofungiwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin)  
Ilisababisha: [Wafanyakazi wanamtawala bosi](#node-e-reverse)  
Chanzo: [de Waal & van Roosmalen, ‘Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees’, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 5 (1979) 55–66](https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302695)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-chimp-repair](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-chimp-repair)
14. **Shiriki, na wengine wawe na deni kwako** (imeonekana 1989 · Iliyoonekana katika spishi zilizo hai)  
De Waal (1989) aliripoti kuwa sokwe hushiriki chakula kwa urahisi zaidi na wale waliowasafisha manyoya au kuwaunga mkono, kana kwamba wanaweka kumbukumbu ya madeni yao. Utawala na miungano huamua nani anashiriki na nani. Kwa hiyo kushiriki si jibu kwa uhitaji tu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Rudisha fadhila](#node-e-reciprocity) ; [Mgawo wa haki](#node-e-capuchin)  
Ilisababisha: [Wafanyakazi wanamtawala bosi](#node-e-reverse)  
Chanzo: [de Waal, ‘Food sharing and reciprocal obligations among chimpanzees’, J. Human Evolution 18 (1989) 433–459](https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484%2889%2990074-2)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-foodshare](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-foodshare)
15. **Wafanyakazi wanamtawala bosi** (imejengwa upya kwa wawindaji-wakusanyaji · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Boehm (1993) alisema, kutokana na utafiti wa tamaduni mbalimbali, kuwa wawindaji-wakusanyaji wenye usawa wa kijamii hudhibiti viongozi. Huungana kumdhihaki, kumtenga au kumwondoa yeyote anayejaribu kutawala. Anaichukulia hili kama kugeuza mpangilio wa utawala unaopatikana kwa sokwe wakubwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Patana baada ya ugomvi](#node-e-chimp-repair) ; [Shiriki, na wengine wawe na deni kwako](#node-e-foodshare)  
Ilisababisha: [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms)  
Chanzo: [Boehm, ‘Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy’, Current Anthropology 34 (1993) 227–254](https://doi.org/10.1086/204166)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-reverse](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-reverse)
16. **Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu** (imeonekana miaka ya 1990–2005 · Inayokisiwa kwa mababu)  
Wiessner (2005) alirekodi jinsi Ju/‘hoansi, wawindaji-wakusanyaji wa Kalahari, wanavyotekeleza kanuni kwa umbea, ukosoaji na, mara chache, jeuri ya kikundi. Alipata kuwa mizozo mingi hushughulikiwa kwa mazungumzo. Watu wa tatu ambao hawakudhuriwa ndio hutekeleza. Inaonyesha jinsi kanuni zinavyoweza kudumishwa bila dola. Hawa ni watu walio hai wenye historia yao wenyewe. Kwa hiyo utafiti ni ushahidi kuhusu jinsi utekelezaji unavyofanya kazi, si picha ya mababu zetu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Wafanyakazi wanamtawala bosi](#node-e-reverse)  
Ilisababisha: [Sheria za kwanza zilizoandikwa](#node-a-urnammu) ; [Usidhuru uhai wowote](#node-a-jain) ; [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius) ; [Amri tano](#node-a-buddha) ; [Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki](#node-q-cohesion)  
Chanzo: [Wiessner, ‘Norm enforcement among the Ju/‘hoansi Bushmen’, Human Nature 16 (2005) 115–145](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-005-1000-9)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=e-norms](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=e-norms)

## Kanuni kutoka juu

1. **Sheria za kwanza zilizoandikwa** (takriban 2100 KK)  
Kanuni ya Ur-Nammu, kutoka mji wa Wasumeri wa Ur, ndiyo sheria iliyoandikwa ya zamani zaidi iliyosalia. Inaweka malipo yasiyobadilika kwa majeraha. Kanuni iliyochapishwa na mtawala ilichukua nafasi ya suluhu isiyoandikwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni ya Hammurabi](#node-a-hammurabi)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Ur-Nammu’](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ur-Nammu)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-urnammu](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-urnammu)
2. **Kanuni ya Hammurabi** (takriban 1754 KK)  
Hammurabi wa Babeli alichongesha sheria takriban 280 kwenye nguzo ya jiwe. Zinataja adhabu kwa kosa na kwa cheo cha watu wanaohusika. Kanuni inawasilisha sheria kama zilizotolewa na mfalme chini ya idhini ya miungu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Sheria za kwanza zilizoandikwa](#node-a-urnammu)  
Ilisababisha: [Amri Kumi](#node-a-decalogue) ; [Ni nzuri kwa sababu Mungu anasema hivyo?](#node-g-euthyphro)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Code of Hammurabi’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Code-of-Hammurabi)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-hammurabi](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-hammurabi)
3. **Amri Kumi** (milenia ya kwanza KK (tarehe inabishaniwa))  
Biblia ya Kiebrania inatoa amri kumi, katika Kutoka 20 na Kumbukumbu la Torati 5\. Zimeundwa kama kanuni zilizosemwa na Mungu kwa watu waliofungwa kwa agano. Zinahusu ibada, sabato, kuwaheshimu wazazi, kuua, uzinzi, wizi, ushahidi wa uongo na tamaa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kanuni ya Hammurabi](#node-a-hammurabi)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni ya Dhahabu](#node-a-golden) ; [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian) ; [Sheria kutoka ufunuo](#node-a-islam) ; [Akili au ufunuo?](#node-a-reason-revelation)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Ten Commandments’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ten-Commandments)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-decalogue](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-decalogue)
4. **Kanuni ya Dhahabu** (takriban 500 KK na kuendelea, tamaduni nyingi · Wazo)  
Matoleo ya kanuni ya kuwatendea wengine kama ungependa kutendewa yanaonekana katika maandishi ya Kikonfusi, Kiyahudi, Kikristo, Kibudha, Kihindu na mengine. Mengine yameandikwa kwa chanya na mengine kwa hasi. Kwamba inajirudia katika mapokeo yote inatajwa kama ushahidi wa mzizi wa pamoja katika kurudishiana kati ya watu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius) ; [Amri Kumi](#node-a-decalogue) ; [Amri tano](#node-a-buddha)  
Ilisababisha: [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Golden Rule’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Golden-Rule)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-golden](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-golden)
5. **Ishi kwa akili na maumbile** (takriban 300 KK na kuendelea · Wazo)  
Wastoiki, kuanzia Zeno wa Citium, walifundisha kuwa fadhila ndiyo wema pekee. Mtu anapaswa kuishi kwa upatanifu na akili na maumbile. Wastoiki wa baadaye kama Hierocles walieleza duara zenye kitovu kimoja za kujali, zikipanuka kutoka nafsi hadi ubinadamu wote.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pete ya Gyges](#node-g-gyges)  
Ilisababisha: [Sheria ya asili](#node-a-natlaw)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Stoicism’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-stoics](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-stoics)
6. **Mpende jirani yako** (karne ya 1 BK · Wazo)  
Mahubiri ya Mlimani katika Injili ya Mathayo yanahamisha kanuni kutoka vitendo vya nje hadi nia. Yanapanua kujali hadi maadui. Ukristo ulichukua amri za Biblia ya Kiebrania kama msingi na kuongeza kanuni ya kumpenda jirani.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Amri Kumi](#node-a-decalogue) ; [Kanuni ya Dhahabu](#node-a-golden)  
Ilisababisha: [Sheria kutoka ufunuo](#node-a-islam) ; [Sheria ya asili](#node-a-natlaw) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant) ; [Kama hakuna Mungu](#node-g-karamazov) ; [Kifo cha Mungu](#node-g-nietzsche)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Sermon on the Mount’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sermon-on-the-Mount)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-christian](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-christian)
7. **Sheria kutoka ufunuo** (karne ya 7 BK · Wazo)  
Katika Uislamu, Kurani na mfano wa Muhammad ndio msingi wa sharia. Ni mkusanyiko wa wajibu unaohusu ibada, familia, biashara na adhabu. Wanazuoni wa sheria walikuza kanuni kupitia tafsiri katika karne zilizofuata.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian) ; [Amri Kumi](#node-a-decalogue)  
Ilisababisha: [Akili au ufunuo?](#node-a-reason-revelation)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Sharia’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-islam](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-islam)
8. **Akili au ufunuo?** (karne ya 8–13 BK · Wazo)  
Mu’tazila (k.m. ‘Abd al-Jabbar, aliyekufa 1025) walishikilia kuwa thamani ya vitendo kwa ujumla inaweza kujulikana kwa akili. Ash’arites (al-Ash’ari, aliyekufa 935 au 936) hawakukubaliana. Kwao wema na uovu huwekwa na amri ya Mungu na hujulikana kupitia ufunuo. Avicenna, Averroes na Maimonides walikuza Aristotle ndani ya sheria za Kiislamu na Kiyahudi. Aquinas aliwategemea. Alimwita Averroes ‘Mfasiri’ na alifuata Avicenna na Maimonides katika maswali kadhaa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Sheria kutoka ufunuo](#node-a-islam) ; [Amri Kumi](#node-a-decalogue) ; [Fadhila ni mazoea](#node-a-aristotle)  
Ilisababisha: [Sheria ya asili](#node-a-natlaw)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aquinas’; ‘Maimonides’; Hare, God’s Command, ch. 6 (Oxford University Press, 2015)](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-reason-revelation](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-reason-revelation)
9. **Sheria ya asili** (1265–1274 · Wazo)  
Summa Theologiae ya Aquinas inasema kuna sheria ambayo akili inaweza kuigundua. Inawafunga watu wote, na sheria ya binadamu inapaswa kuifuata. Wazo hilo linaunganisha fikira za Wastoiki na Warumi, Aristotle, mafundisho ya Kikristo, na kazi za wanafalsafa wa Kiislamu na Kiyahudi kama Avicenna, Averroes na Maimonides, ambao Aquinas aliwategemea.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Ishi kwa akili na maumbile](#node-a-stoics) ; [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian) ; [Fadhila ni mazoea](#node-a-aristotle) ; [Akili au ufunuo?](#node-a-reason-revelation)  
Ilisababisha: [Haki kutoka maumbile](#node-a-locke)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aquinas’s Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas-moral-political/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-natlaw](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-natlaw)
10. **Haki kutoka maumbile** (1689 · Wazo)  
Second Treatise of Government ya Locke inashikilia kuwa katika hali ya asili kila mtu ana haki za asili za uhai, uhuru na mali. Serikali ipo kuzilinda. Haki za asili huwapa watu madai ambayo hakuna mtawala anayeweza kuyapindua.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Sheria ya asili](#node-a-natlaw)  
Ilisababisha: [Tamko la Haki za Binadamu](#node-c-udhr)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Locke’s Political Philosophy’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke-political/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-locke](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-locke)

## Bila miungu

1. **Usidhuru uhai wowote** (takriban karne ya 6–5 KK · Wazo)  
Mafundisho ya Kijaini, yanayohusishwa na Mahavira, yanafanya ahimsa kuwa wajibu wa kwanza. Ahimsa inamaanisha kuepuka madhara kwa kiumbe chochote hai. Inaenea hadi wanyama na mimea. Ni mojawapo ya kanuni za zamani zaidi ambazo mduara wake wa kujali unafika nje ya binadamu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms)  
Ilisababisha: [Ukweli wa pande nyingi](#node-g-anekanta)  
Chanzo: [Britannica, ‘Ahimsa’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/ahimsa)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-jain](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-jain)
2. **Majukumu, taratibu na utu** (takriban 500 KK · Wazo)  
Analects, zinazohusishwa na Confucius na wanafunzi wake, zinaweka msingi wa maisha ya kimaadili katika majukumu ndani ya familia na taifa. Heshima ya wazazi (xiao) ndiyo mzizi. Taratibu (li) hupa mwenendo umbo lake. Ren, utu, ni sifa ya mtu wa mfano (junzi). Kurudishiana (shu) hutoa kanuni ya kujizuia: usiwafanyie wengine usichotaka kufanyiwa wewe (Analects 15.24).  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni ya Dhahabu](#node-a-golden) ; [Tamko la Haki za Binadamu](#node-c-udhr) ; [Machipukizi ya wema](#node-g-mencius) ; [Asili ya binadamu ni mbaya](#node-g-xunzi) ; [Kujali bila daraja](#node-c-mozi)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Confucius’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-confucius](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-confucius)
3. **Amri tano** (takriban karne ya 5 KK · Wazo)  
Mazoezi ya walei wa Kibudha yanajumuisha amri tano. Jiepushe na kuua, kuiba, mwenendo mbaya wa kingono, kusema uongo na vileo. Zimeundwa kama kanuni za mafunzo anazochukua mtu. Si amri kutoka kwa mungu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni ya Dhahabu](#node-a-golden) ; [Ashoka analinda wanyama](#node-c-ashoka)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism’](https://www.britannica.com/topic/panca-sila)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-buddha](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-buddha)
4. **Hakuna miungu, hakuna maisha baada ya kifo** (Ajita: karibu karne ya 5 KK; shule ya Cārvāka: inathibitishwa tu katika ripoti za baadaye · Wazo)  
Ajita Kesakambalī ni mwalimu ambaye Sāmaññaphala Sutta (DN 2) ya Kipali inamweka katika wakati wa Buddha. Anaripotiwa kufundisha kuwa hakuna dunia nyingine. Zawadi na dhabihu hazizai matunda. Mpumbavu na mwenye hekima wote hukatiliwa mbali wakati wa kifo. Shule ya baadaye ya Cārvāka au Lokāyata ndiyo mapokeo ya Kihindi yanayojulikana zaidi kwa umaada kamili usio na miungu. Maandishi yake yamepotea. Tunaijua zaidi kutoka kwa wapinzani, wanaoeleza maadili yake kuwa kutafuta raha.  
Chanzo: [Dīgha Nikāya 2 (Sāmaññaphala Sutta), Ajita Kesakambalī section; Britannica, ‘Carvaka’](https://suttacentral.net/dn2)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-carvaka](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-carvaka)
5. **Ni nzuri kwa sababu Mungu anasema hivyo?** (takriban 380 KK · Wazo)  
Katika Euthyphro ya Plato, Socrates anauliza swali. Je, miungu hupenda kilicho kitakatifu kwa sababu ni kitakatifu? Au ni kitakatifu kwa sababu miungu inakipenda? Swali hilo linatenganisha kilicho sahihi na nani anayeamuru.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kanuni ya Hammurabi](#node-a-hammurabi)  
Chanzo: [Plato, Euthyphro (trans. Jowett), Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1642)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-euthyphro](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-euthyphro)
6. **Pete ya Gyges** (takriban 375 KK · Wazo)  
Katika Republic Kitabu cha II, Glaucon anasimulia kuhusu pete inayomfanya mvaaji asionekane. Anauliza kama yeyote angebaki mwadilifu kama angeweza kutenda bila kuonekana au kuadhibiwa. Ni jaribio la zamani zaidi linalojulikana la mwenendo bila mashahidi na bila matokeo.  
Ilisababisha: [Fadhila ni mazoea](#node-a-aristotle) ; [Ishi kwa akili na maumbile](#node-a-stoics) ; [Fikiria wewe pekee ndiye uliyepo](#node-x-alone)  
Chanzo: [Plato, Republic, Book II (trans. Jowett), Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1497)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-gyges](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-gyges)
7. **Fadhila ni mazoea** (takriban 340 KK · Wazo)  
Katika Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle anasema kuwa maisha mema ni shughuli kulingana na fadhila. Fadhila za tabia huundwa kwa mazoea. Hupimwa dhidi ya wastani kati ya ncha mbili. Swali linahama kutoka kile kilichokatazwa hadi kuwa mtu wa aina gani.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pete ya Gyges](#node-g-gyges)  
Ilisababisha: [Sheria ya asili](#node-a-natlaw) ; [Chagua wewe ni nani](#node-x-virtue-back) ; [Akili au ufunuo?](#node-a-reason-revelation)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aristotle’s Ethics’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=a-aristotle](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=a-aristotle)
8. **Machipukizi ya wema** (karne ya 4 KK · Wazo)  
Mencius alishikilia kuwa asili ya binadamu huelekea wema. Kila mtu ana ‘machipukizi’ ya mwanzo ya huruma, aibu, heshima na kukubali na kukataa. Malezi yanaweza kuyalea au kuyadumaza. Hoja yake ni mtoto anayekaribia kuanguka kisimani. Yeyote angeitikia kwa hofu na huruma, bila kufikiria zawadi au sifa (Mencius 2A6).  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius) ; [Kujali bila daraja](#node-c-mozi)  
Ilisababisha: [Asili ya binadamu ni mbaya](#node-g-xunzi)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Mencius’; Mencius 2A6, 6A6](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mencius/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-mencius](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-mencius)
9. **Miungu haitazami** (takriban 300 KK · Wazo)  
Epicurus alifundisha kuwa miungu ipo lakini haishiriki katika mambo ya binadamu. Kwa hiyo hakuna hukumu ya kimungu ya kuogopa. Alifundisha kuwa haki ni makubaliano ya kutodhuriana. Alishikilia kuwa kosa ni baya kwa sababu huwezi kuwa na uhakika wa kuepuka kugunduliwa, wala wa amani ya moyo baadaye.  
Ilisababisha: [Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’](#node-g-hume) ; [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util) ; [Uchovu wa kuishi milele](#node-x-makropulos)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Epicurus’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-epicurus](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-epicurus)
10. **Asili ya binadamu ni mbaya** (karne ya 3 KK · Wazo)  
Xunzi, pia mfuasi wa Confucius, alishikilia kuwa ‘asili ya binadamu ni mbaya’ (sura 23). Ukiachwa peke yake, tamaa zetu huzaa ugomvi, na wema ni kitu kinachotengenezwa. Wafalme wenye hekima waliweka taratibu na kanuni kubadilisha tamaa. Aliichukulia Mbingu kama utaratibu wa kawaida wa maumbile, usiotuza wala kuadhibu (sura 17).  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius) ; [Machipukizi ya wema](#node-g-mencius)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Xunzi’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xunzi/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-xunzi](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-xunzi)
11. **Ukweli wa pande nyingi** (mizizi ya kikanuni; uundaji wa kiklasiki karibu karne ya 5–8 BK (tarehe hazina uhakika) · Wazo)  
Anekantavada ya Kijaini inashikilia kuwa uhalisia una nyanja nyingi, kwa hiyo hakuna kauli moja inayoukamata. Syadvada huweka syat (‘kwa namna fulani’) mbele ya kila dai na kupanga madai katika namna saba. Wanafalsafa wa baadaye wa Kijaini, wakiwemo Siddhasena Divakara na Samantabhadra, waliikuza kuwa mbinu. Inapima maoni hasimu bila kukataa lolote moja kwa moja.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Usidhuru uhai wowote](#node-a-jain)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Jain Philosophy’; Matilal, The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekanta-vada), 1981](https://iep.utm.edu/jain/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-anekanta](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-anekanta)
12. **Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’** (1739–1740 · Wazo)  
Katika A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume alisema kuwa tofauti za kimaadili hutoka hisia, si akili peke yake. Alibainisha kuwa waandishi huhama kutoka kauli za kile kilicho hadi kauli za kile kinachopaswa kuwa, bila kueleza hatua hiyo. Wasomaji bado wanabishana alimaanisha nini: kwamba hakuna hitimisho kama hilo linaloweza kuwa halali, au kwamba linahitaji tu uhalalishaji.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Miungu haitazami](#node-g-epicurus)  
Ilisababisha: [Dhamiri kutoka silika](#node-g-darwin) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant) ; [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util) ; [Utambulisho si kinachojalisha](#node-x-parfit)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Hume’s Moral Philosophy’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-moral/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-hume](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-hume)
13. **Jipe sheria** (1785 · Wazo)  
Groundwork ya Kant inasema kuwa mtu mwenye busara anafungwa na sheria anayojipa mwenyewe. Inajaribiwa kwa njia mbili. Moja ni kuuliza kama ungeweza kutaka kanuni hiyo kwa kila mtu. Nyingine ni fomula ya Ubinadamu: usiuchukulie ubinadamu, ndani yako na kwa wengine, kamwe kama njia tu. Sheria haihitaji kamanda wa kimungu. Lakini Kant alishikilia kuwa wema mkuu, fadhila ikilinganishwa na furaha, unahitaji mawazo ya msingi ya Mungu na kutokufa. Pia alishikilia kuwa wajibu wetu kuhusu wanyama ni wa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja tu, kwa kuwa deni letu ni kwa ubinadamu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’](#node-g-hume) ; [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian)  
Ilisababisha: [Hakuna kilicho juu ya nafsi](#node-g-stirner) ; [Kifo cha Mungu](#node-g-nietzsche) ; [Chagua bila kujua](#node-g-harsanyi) ; [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls) ; [Tamko la Haki za Binadamu](#node-c-udhr) ; [The Case for Animal Rights](#node-c-regan) ; [Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki](#node-q-cohesion) ; [Wanyama kama malengo](#node-c-korsgaard)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Kant’s Moral Philosophy’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-kant](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-kant)
14. **Hesabu matokeo** (1789–1861 · Wazo)  
Bentham (1789) na Mill (1861) walishikilia kuwa vitendo vya haki ni vile vinavyozalisha furaha kubwa zaidi kwa watu wengi zaidi, kila mtu akihesabiwa sawa. Kanuni hiyo haihitaji mungu. Inahitaji tu njia ya kulinganisha jinsi maisha yanavyokwenda.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Miungu haitazami](#node-g-epicurus) ; [Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’](#node-g-hume)  
Ilisababisha: [Humanist Manifestos](#node-g-humanist) ; [Chagua bila kujua](#node-g-harsanyi) ; [Mashine ya uzoefu](#node-x-machine) ; [Je, wanaweza kuteseka](#node-c-bentham) ; [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75) ; [Kanuni ya madhara](#node-p-mill)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The History of Utilitarianism’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-util](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-util)
15. **Hakuna kilicho juu ya nafsi** (1844 · Wazo)  
The Ego and Its Own ya Stirner inakataa kila sababu ya juu, ikiwemo ubinadamu na maadili, kama wazo lililogandishwa akilini. Inachukua maslahi ya mtu mwenyewe kuwa msingi pekee. Ni kauli ya mapema yenye kina zaidi kwamba hakuna kanuni iliyo juu ya mtu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Max Stirner’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/max-stirner/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-stirner](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-stirner)
16. **Dhamiri kutoka silika** (1871 · Wazo)  
Katika The Descent of Man, Darwin alisema kuwa hisi ya kimaadili ilikua kutoka silika za kijamii kama huruma, ikiunganishwa na kumbukumbu na akili. Alisema si ya kipekee kwa binadamu katika asili. Hilo liliunganisha kanuni za tabia na maisha ya wanyama bila kuomba mtoa sheria.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’](#node-g-hume)  
Ilisababisha: [Kifo cha Mungu](#node-g-nietzsche)  
Chanzo: [Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871), ch. 3–4, Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2300)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-darwin](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-darwin)
17. **Kama hakuna Mungu** (1880 · Wazo)  
Katika The Brothers Karamazov ya Dostoevsky, Ivan anasisitiza swali la kinachopunguza mwenendo kama hakuna kutokufa au Mungu. Kitabu ndicho chanzo cha msemo unaofafanuliwa kwa kawaida kama ‘kila kitu kinaruhusiwa’. Riwaya inabishana swali hilo kutoka pande kadhaa. Haitoi jibu moja.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian)  
Chanzo: [Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov (1880), Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28054)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-karamazov](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-karamazov)
18. **Kifo cha Mungu** (1882 · Wazo)  
Katika The Gay Science (kifungu cha 125), mwendawazimu wa Nietzsche anatangaza kuwa Mungu amekufa na tumemuua. Kifungu cha 341 kinaweka kurudi kwa milele kama jaribio: je, ungeweza kuthibitisha maisha yako kama ulivyoyaishi? Anachukulia kupotea kwa msingi wa pamoja wa maadili kuwa tukio. Watu lazima waijibu kwa kuunda maadili mapya.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mpende jirani yako](#node-a-christian) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant) ; [Dhamiri kutoka silika](#node-g-darwin)  
Ilisababisha: [Ishi bila maana iliyotolewa](#node-g-camus) ; [Kuwepo kabla ya asili](#node-g-sartre)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Friedrich Nietzsche’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-nietzsche](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-nietzsche)
19. **Humanist Manifestos** (1933, 1973, 2003)  
Humanist Manifestos tatu, zilizotolewa mwaka 1933, 1973 na 2003, zinaeleza maadili bila kuomba chanzo cha juu ya maumbile. Zinaweka maadili katika mahitaji ya binadamu na uzoefu wa pamoja. Kila marekebisho yalipanua masuala yake. Ya baadaye yanajumuisha wanyama na mazingira.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [American Humanist Association, ‘Humanist Manifesto I’](https://americanhumanist.org/what-is-humanism/manifesto1/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-humanist](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-humanist)
20. **Ishi bila maana iliyotolewa** (1942 · Wazo)  
Katika The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus anasema kuwa maisha hayana maana iliyotolewa. Mgongano kati ya hitaji la binadamu la maana na ukimya wa dunia anauita upuuzi (the absurd). Anakataa kujiua kama jibu. Anahitimisha kuwa mtu anaweza kuishi kwa uasi, na bila kuomba kitu chochote nje ya dunia.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kifo cha Mungu](#node-g-nietzsche)  
Ilisababisha: [Kuwepo kabla ya asili](#node-g-sartre)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Albert Camus’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-camus](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-camus)
21. **Kuwepo kabla ya asili** (1945–1946 · Wazo)  
Katika ‘Existentialism is a Humanism’, iliyotolewa mwaka 1945 na kuchapishwa 1946, Sartre anasema kuwa hakuna mungu wa kuweka asili ya binadamu. Kwa hiyo kila mtu hujiunda kwa uchaguzi wake na kuwajibika kwa anachochagua, kwa sababu katika kuchagua huchagua kwa ajili ya kila mtu. Anashikilia kuwa huu ni mzigo, si ruhusa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kifo cha Mungu](#node-g-nietzsche) ; [Ishi bila maana iliyotolewa](#node-g-camus)  
Ilisababisha: [Chagua wewe ni nani](#node-x-virtue-back)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Jean-Paul Sartre’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sartre/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-sartre](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-sartre)
22. **Chagua bila kujua** (1953–1955 · Wazo)  
Harsanyi alisema kuwa mchaguzi mwenye busara, asiyependelea, asiyejua atakuwa mtu yupi, anapaswa kuchagua kanuni zinazoongeza ustawi wa wastani. Makala yake ya 1955 inatoa hoja kwa modeli wazi ya uchaguzi nyuma ya ujinga kama huo.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant)  
Ilisababisha: [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls)  
Chanzo: [Harsanyi, ‘Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and interpersonal comparisons of utility’, J. Political Economy 63 (1955) 309–321](https://doi.org/10.1086/257678)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-harsanyi](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-harsanyi)
23. **Pazia la ujinga** (1971 · Wazo)  
Katika A Theory of Justice ya Rawls, watu huchagua kanuni za jamii kutoka hali ya awali. Ndani yake hawajui tabaka lao, vipaji vyao wala nafasi yao maishani. Anasema wangechagua uhuru wa msingi sawa, na mipangilio inayowafaidi zaidi walio chini kabisa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant) ; [Chagua bila kujua](#node-g-harsanyi)  
Ilisababisha: [Pazia, spishi zote](#node-g-veil-animals) ; [Mashine ya uzoefu](#node-x-machine) ; [Utambulisho si kinachojalisha](#node-x-parfit) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi](#node-q-veil-all) ; [Uwezo kwa wanyama](#node-c-nussbaum)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Original Position’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/original-position/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-rawls](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-rawls)
24. **Pazia, spishi zote** (2007–2016 · Wazo)  
Waandishi kadhaa wameuliza wachaguzi wa Rawls wangeamua nini kama hawakujua wao ni wa spishi gani. Hilden (2007) anasema kuwa kuwa mnyama asiye binadamu ni suala la bahati, kwa hiyo linastahili kuwa nyuma ya pazia. Liberto (2016) anasema wachaguzi kama hao wangeishia karibu zaidi na umanufaa kuliko kanuni za Rawls mwenyewe.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls) ; [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi](#node-q-veil-all)  
Chanzo: [Hilden, ‘A contractarian view of animal rights: insuring against the possibility of being a non-human animal’, Animal Law 14 (2007)](https://www.animallaw.info/article/contractarian-view-animal-rights-insuring-against-possibility-being-non-human-animal)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=g-veil-animals](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=g-veil-animals)
25. **Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi** (Swali wazi)  
Kama huenda ukaamka kama kiumbe chochote, ungechagua kanuni zipi? Inaweza kuwa binadamu, mnyama, kiumbe cha sintetiki au mhusika katika uigaji. Wachaguzi nyuma ya pazia wanaweza kuombwa kupuuza spishi zao. Waandishi wa Kibudha kama Śāntideva wanatuomba kupima mateso ya wengine kama yetu. Lakini hakuna maelezo yaliyokubaliwa yanayosema wachaguzi wanapaswa kufanya nini kuhusu viumbe ambavyo uzoefu wao hauna uhakika au ambavyo idadi yao inaweza kubadilika.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls) ; [Pazia, spishi zote](#node-g-veil-animals) ; [Taking AI welfare seriously](#node-c-long) ; [Utambulisho si kinachojalisha](#node-x-parfit)  
Fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi:
  * **Rawls** (1971): Inaweka uchaguzi wa kanuni kutoka hali ya awali bila kujua nafasi ya mtu katika jamii. [A Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/original-position/)
  * **Hilden** (2007): Inasema kuwa uwezekano wa kuwa mnyama asiye binadamu unastahili kuzingatiwa nyuma ya pazia la ujinga. [Animal Law 14](https://www.animallaw.info/article/contractarian-view-animal-rights-insuring-against-possibility-being-non-human-animal)
  * **Liberto** (2016): Inasema kuwa wawakilishi wa wanyama wote nyuma ya pazia wangechagua kanuni zilizo karibu zaidi na za manufaa kuliko za Rawls. [Utilitas](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/utilitas/article/species-membership-and-the-veil-of-ignorance-what-principles-of-justice-would-the-representatives-of-all-animals-choose/EB1E68AD96049FB5776A08CF8E498264)
  * **Śāntideva** (c. 700-750): Inasema kuwa hakuna mateso yanayomilikiwa na mtu hatimaye na yanapaswa kuzuiwa kama mateso tu, na inamwomba msomaji kubadilishana nafsi na mwingine ili maumivu ya wengine yahisiwe kama yake mwenyewe. [Bodhicaryāvatāra, ch. 8 (verses 90–103 and the exchange meditation of 8.120–131)](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shantideva/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=q-veil-all](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=q-veil-all)

## Uzoefu wako mwenyewe

1. **Chagua wewe ni nani** (1958–1984 · Wazo)  
Anscombe (1958) alisema kuwa lugha ya wajibu wa kimaadili ilikuwa imepoteza msingi bila mtoa sheria. Aliashiria nyuma kwenye fadhila na kustawi, na hilo likafufua maadili ya fadhila. Ukisoma pamoja na Sartre, swali linakuwa ni tabia gani unayojiundia mwenyewe.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Fadhila ni mazoea](#node-a-aristotle) ; [Kuwepo kabla ya asili](#node-g-sartre)  
Chanzo: [Anscombe, ‘Modern moral philosophy’, Philosophy 33 (1958) 1–19; SEP, ‘Virtue Ethics’](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031819100037943)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-virtue-back](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-virtue-back)
2. **Mtu wa mwisho** (1973 · Wazo)  
Routley aliuliza kama mtu wa mwisho aliyebaki hai angekosea kwa kuharibu dunia nyingine iliyo hai. Ni kisa cha kutenda wakati hakuna mtu mwingine anayeathirika. Kinajaribu kama kanuni yoyote inasalia wakati hakuna aliyebaki ambaye maslahi yake yako hatarini.  
Ilisababisha: [Fikiria wewe pekee ndiye uliyepo](#node-x-alone)  
Chanzo: [Routley, ‘Is there a need for a new, an environmental, ethic?', Proc. 15th World Congress of Philosophy (1973); discussed in SEP, ‘Environmental Ethics’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-routley](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-routley)
3. **Uchovu wa kuishi milele** (1973 · Wazo)  
Insha ya Williams kuhusu kisa cha Makropulos inasema kuwa maisha yasiyo na mwisho yangekuwa magumu kuvumilika, au yangeacha kuwa yako mwenyewe. Matamanio yanayopa maisha lengo lake yangeisha, au kubadilika kupita kutambulika. Mapokeo mengi ya Kihindi yanachukulia kuzaliwa upya bila mwisho (samsara) kama utumwa na ukombozi kama kuachiliwa. Lakini mfululizo wa kuzaliwa upya bila kumbukumbu si maisha moja yanayoendelea ambayo Williams anazingatia.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Miungu haitazami](#node-g-epicurus)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Bernard Williams’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/williams-bernard/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-makropulos](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-makropulos)
4. **Mashine ya uzoefu** (1974 · Wazo)  
Anarchy, State, and Utopia ya Nozick inauliza kama ungejiunganisha na mashine inayotoa uzoefu wowote unaochagua. Anasema watu wengi hawangefanya hivyo. Tunataka kufanya mambo na kuwa mtu wa aina fulani, si kuwa na uzoefu tu. Kisa hicho hutumika dhidi ya mitazamo ambayo uzoefu pekee ndio unaojalisha.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util) ; [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls)  
Ilisababisha: [Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika](#node-x-chalmers) ; [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Hedonism’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-machine](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-machine)
5. **Fikiria wewe pekee ndiye uliyepo** (dhana inayochunguzwa tangu zamani za kale · Wazo)  
Wanafalsafa wamechunguza solipsimu, mtazamo kwamba akili yako tu ndiyo ipo. Kwa kiasi kikubwa wameichukulia kama fumbo kuhusu maarifa. Pia wameuliza maadili yangemaanisha nini kama ungekuwa peke yako. Tovuti haishikilii mtazamo huu. Inaandika kana kwamba watu wengine wapo na wanajalisha. Inaonekana hapa tu kama dhana iliyochunguzwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mtu wa mwisho](#node-x-routley) ; [Pete ya Gyges](#node-g-gyges)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Other Minds’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/other-minds/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-alone](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-alone)
6. **Utambulisho si kinachojalisha** (1984 · Wazo)  
Katika Reasons and Persons, Parfit anasema kuwa utambulisho wa mtu si kinachojalisha katika kuendelea kuishi. Kinachojalisha ni muunganiko na mwendelezo wa kisaikolojia. Hivi vinaweza kuja kwa viwango na vinaweza kushirikiwa. Hilo linatoa njia mpya ya kujibu maswali kuhusu nakala, mgawanyiko na muungano wa watu. Parfit mwenyewe alibainisha ulinganifu na mafundisho ya Kibudha kwamba hakuna nafsi inayodumu. Alitaja vifungu vya Kibudha katika kiambatisho.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pengo kati ya ‘ni’ na ‘inapaswa’](#node-g-hume) ; [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls)  
Ilisababisha: [Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika](#node-x-chalmers) ; [Miili mingi, kiumbe kimoja](#node-q-collective) ; [Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi](#node-q-veil-all)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Personal Identity’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-parfit](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-parfit)
7. **Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika** (2022 · Wazo)  
Reality+ ya Chalmers inasema kuwa dunia pepe ni uhalisia halisi na kwamba mtu anaweza kuishi maisha yenye maana ndani yake. Kitabu pia kinachunguza deni tulilo nalo kwa wahusika katika dunia kama hizo, kama wana fahamu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mashine ya uzoefu](#node-x-machine) ; [Utambulisho si kinachojalisha](#node-x-parfit)  
Ilisababisha: [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being) ; [Haki kutoka ndani ya uigaji](#node-q-own-rights)  
Chanzo: [Chalmers, Reality+: Virtual Worlds and the Problems of Philosophy (W. W. Norton, 2022)](https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393635805)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=x-chalmers](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=x-chalmers)
8. **Miili mingi, kiumbe kimoja** (Swali wazi)  
Je, kanuni zetu zinatumika kwa kiumbe kinachoishi na kufa kama viumbe vingi kwa wakati mmoja? Kanuni nyingi za kisheria na nyingi za kimaadili hudhania mwili mmoja na maisha moja. Mapokeo ya uhusiano na yasiyo na nafsi tayari huwachukulia watu tofauti. Hakuna maelezo yaliyokubaliwa yanayosema jinsi ya kuhesabu madhara au ridhaa kwa kiumbe ambacho ni miili mingi, akili zilizonakiliwa, au kundi ambalo linaweza lenyewe kuwa kiumbe chenye fahamu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Utambulisho si kinachojalisha](#node-x-parfit) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Utetezi wa haki za AI](#node-c-schwitz-garza)  
Fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi:
  * **Parfit** (1984): Inasema kuwa kinachojalisha katika kuendelea kuishi ni mwendelezo wa kisaikolojia, ambao unaweza kugawanyika, kuungana na kuja kwa viwango. [Reasons and Persons, Oxford University Press](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/)
  * **Shulman na Bostrom** (2021): Inazingatia akili za kidijitali zinazoweza kunakiliwa, kuunganishwa na kuendeshwa kwa wingi, na athari yake kwa hadhi ya kimaadili na madai ya rasilimali. [Rethinking Moral Status, Oxford University Press, 306–326](https://stafforini.com/works/shulman-2021-sharing-world-digital/)
  * **Schwitzgebel** (2015): Inasema kuwa kama umaada ni kweli, baadhi ya makundi ya watu, kama taifa, kuna uwezekano mkubwa ni viumbe vyenye fahamu. [Philosophical Studies 172, 1697–1721](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-014-0387-8)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=q-collective](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=q-collective)

## Duara linalopanuka

1. **Kujali bila daraja** (karne ya 5–4 KK · Wazo)  
Mozi alisema kuwa machafuko hutokana na upendeleo. Alisema watu wanapaswa kuonyesha jian ai, kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa ‘kujali bila upendeleo’ au ‘kujumuisha’. Inamaanisha kujali ustawi wa wengine bila kuupanga kwa ukaribu. Alipima desturi, zikiwemo mazishi ya kina ya Kikonfusi na muziki, kwa kama zinafaidi wote. Hilo hufanya maadili yake kuwa ya mapema yanayotegemea matokeo.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius)  
Ilisababisha: [Machipukizi ya wema](#node-g-mencius)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Mohism’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-mozi](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-mozi)
2. **Ashoka analinda wanyama** (takriban karne ya 3 KK (Rock Edict I; Pillar Edict V katika mwaka wa 26 wa utawala wa mfalme))  
Katika Rock Edict I, mfalme wa Maurya Ashoka anatangaza kuwa hakuna kiumbe hai atakayechinjwa au kutolewa dhabihu katika himaya yake. Anasema kuua jikoni kwake mwenyewe kumepunguzwa hadi viumbe wachache. Pillar Edict V ilitolewa miaka ishirini na sita baada ya kutawazwa kwake. Inaorodhesha spishi zilizotangazwa kulindwa, pamoja na majike wenye watoto na samaki siku zilizowekwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Amri tano](#node-a-buddha)  
Chanzo: [Dhammika (trans.), The Edicts of King Ashoka, Buddhist Publication Society (Wheel 386)](https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-ashoka](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-ashoka)
3. **Je, wanaweza kuteseka** (1789 · Wazo)  
Katika tanbihi ya An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham aliandika kuwa swali kuhusu wanyama si kama wanaweza kufikiri au kuzungumza. Ni kama wanaweza kuteseka. Alilitumia kusema kuwa uwezo wa kuteseka, si spishi, ndio huamua nani anastahili kuzingatiwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util)  
Ilisababisha: [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-bentham](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-bentham)
4. **Tamko la Haki za Binadamu** (1948)  
Baraza Kuu la Umoja wa Mataifa lilipitisha Universal Declaration of Human Rights tarehe 10 Desemba 1948, kwa kura 48 dhidi ya hakuna na kutokupiga kura 8\. Kifungu cha 1 kinasema binadamu wote huzaliwa huru na sawa katika utu na haki na wamejaliwa akili na dhamiri. Ilikuwa kauli ya kwanza ya aina hiyo kupitishwa na Baraza Kuu la UN. Waandishi wake walitoka mapokeo kadhaa. Chang Peng-chun, mjumbe wa China, alipendekeza neno ‘dhamiri’ na alitumia wazo la Kikonfusi la ren. Charles Malik, mjumbe wa Lebanon, alipendekeza ‘wamejaliwa akili’.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Haki kutoka maumbile](#node-a-locke) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant) ; [Majukumu, taratibu na utu](#node-a-confucius)  
Ilisababisha: [The Expanding Circle](#node-c-circle81)  
Chanzo: [United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-udhr](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-udhr)
5. **Animal Liberation** (1975 · Wazo)  
Animal Liberation ya Singer inasema, kutoka kuzingatia maslahi kwa usawa, kuwa mateso ya wanyama yanahesabika. Kuyachukulia kuwa ya umuhimu mdogo kwa sababu ya spishi ni ubaguzi. Ikawa maandishi ya msingi ya harakati ya kisasa ya ulinzi wa wanyama.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Je, wanaweza kuteseka](#node-c-bentham) ; [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util)  
Ilisababisha: [Pazia, spishi zote](#node-g-veil-animals) ; [The Case for Animal Rights](#node-c-regan) ; [The Expanding Circle](#node-c-circle81) ; [Maisha ya porini yana thamani](#node-p-callicott) ; [Wasaidie wanyama wa porini](#node-p-horta) ; [Uwezo kwa wanyama](#node-c-nussbaum)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-singer75](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-singer75)
6. **The Expanding Circle** (1981 · Wazo)  
The Expanding Circle ya Singer inasema kuwa maadili yalianza kama kujali jamaa na kundi. Akili imeyapanua kufunika viumbe zaidi. Anaunganisha upanuzi huo na huruma iliyobadilika kimageuzi na hoja isiyopendelea.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75) ; [Wasaidie jamaa zako](#node-e-kin) ; [Tamko la Haki za Binadamu](#node-c-udhr)  
Chanzo: [Singer, The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981)](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality-biology/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-circle81](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-circle81)
7. **The Case for Animal Rights** (1983 · Wazo)  
Regan alisema kuwa wanyama wanaoishi maisha yao wenyewe wanayoyapitia (“subjects of a life”) wana thamani ya asili. Wana haki ambazo haziwezi kupinduliwa kwa ajili ya manufaa ya jumla. Mtazamo wake wa haki ni mpinzani wa hoja ya kimanufaa kwa wanyama.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant)  
Ilisababisha: [Pomboo kama watu](#node-c-india) ; [Sandra orangutani](#node-c-sandra) ; [Utetezi wa haki za AI](#node-c-schwitz-garza)  
Chanzo: [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-regan](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-regan)
8. **Uwezo kwa wanyama** (2006 · Wazo)  
Katika Frontiers of Justice, Nussbaum anasema kuwa mkataba wa kijamii wa Rawls umebuniwa kwa pande zilizo sawa takriban zinazofaidika kwa kushirikiana. Kwa hiyo hauwezi kuwahusu watu wenye ulemavu, wageni, au wanyama wasio binadamu. Mkabala wake wa uwezo unauliza kila kiumbe kinahitaji nini kuishi maisha yanayostahili aina yake. Anachukulia kushindwa kutoa hilo kuwa udhalimu, si upungufu wa huruma tu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls) ; [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75)  
Chanzo: [Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership, Harvard University Press (2006)](https://philosophynow.org/issues/60/Frontiers%5Fof%5FJustice%5FDisability%5FNationality%5FSpecies%5FMembership%5Fby%5FMartha%5FNussbaum)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-nussbaum](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-nussbaum)
9. **Tamko la Cambridge** (2012)  
Katika kongamano huko Cambridge tarehe 7 Julai 2012, wanasayansi wa neva walitia saini tamko. Linasema kuwa wanyama wasio binadamu wana msingi wa neva wa hali za fahamu. Hiyo inajumuisha mamalia wote na ndege na viumbe wengine wengi, kama pweza. Philip Low aliliandika, na kundi lililojumuisha Christof Koch lililihariri.  
Ilisababisha: [Pomboo kama watu](#node-c-india) ; [Sandra orangutani](#node-c-sandra) ; [Mapitio ya kaa na pweza](#node-c-birch) ; [Tamko la New York](#node-c-ny-declaration)  
Chanzo: [The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness (2012)](https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/ConsciousnessWeb/PDFs/CambridgeDeclarationOnConsciousness.pdf)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-cambridge](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-cambridge)
10. **Pomboo kama watu** (2013)  
Mei 2013 wizara ya mazingira ya India iliagiza serikali za majimbo kukataa mapendekezo ya mabwawa ya pomboo. Ilisema pomboo wanapaswa kuonekana kama watu wasio binadamu wenye haki zao wenyewe, na kuwafuga kwa burudani hakukubaliki kimaadili. Ilikuwa taarifa ya sera, si sheria.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Tamko la Cambridge](#node-c-cambridge) ; [The Case for Animal Rights](#node-c-regan)  
Ilisababisha: [Hifadhi au porini](#node-p-captive)  
Chanzo: [Global Voices, ‘India sees dolphins as non-human persons’ (31 July 2013)](https://globalvoices.org/2013/07/31/india-sees-dolphins-as-non-human-persons/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-india](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-india)
11. **Sandra orangutani** (2014–2019)  
Tarehe 18 Desemba 2014 mahakama ya rufaa ya Argentina iliamua kuhusu ombi la habeas corpus kwa Sandra, orangutani aliyeshikiliwa katika bustani ya wanyama ya Buenos Aires. Ilimwita ‘mhusika asiye binadamu’ mwenye haki, lakini haikutoa habeas corpus. Mwaka 2015 mahakama iliamuru ahamishwe kwenda hifadhi, na Novemba 2019 alihamia hifadhi moja huko Florida.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [The Case for Animal Rights](#node-c-regan) ; [Tamko la Cambridge](#node-c-cambridge)  
Chanzo: [AP, ‘Orangutan granted “personhood” settles into new Florida home’ (7 November 2019)](https://www.boston.com/news/animals/2019/11/07/orangutan-granted-personhood-settles-into-new-florida-home/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-sandra](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-sandra)
12. **Utetezi wa haki za AI** (2015 · Wazo)  
Schwitzgebel na Garza wanasema kuwa viumbe bandia vinaweza kufikia kuwa na sifa za kisaikolojia na kijamii zinazoweka msingi wa hadhi ya kimaadili kwa binadamu. Kama ni hivyo, vingestahili haki zinazofanana. Pia wanasema tunapaswa kuepuka kujenga viumbe ambavyo hadhi yao haina uhakika. Wanachukulia suala hilo kama tatizo la sasa kwa ubunifu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [The Case for Animal Rights](#node-c-regan)  
Ilisababisha: [Miili mingi, kiumbe kimoja](#node-q-collective) ; [Simamisha mateso ya sintetiki](#node-c-metzinger) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Haki kutoka ndani ya uigaji](#node-q-own-rights)  
Chanzo: [Schwitzgebel & Garza, ‘A defense of the rights of artificial intelligences’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 39 (2015) 98–119](https://doi.org/10.1111/misp.12032)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-schwitz-garza](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-schwitz-garza)
13. **Mto kama mtu wa kisheria** (2017)  
Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017 ya New Zealand ilitangaza Mto Whanganui kuwa mtu wa kisheria. Walezi wawili huzungumza kwa niaba yake. Ni suluhu ya Mkataba na iwi ya Whanganui. Inaakisi mtazamo wa Wamāori wa mto kama babu.  
Chanzo: [Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017 (New Zealand)](https://www.whanganui.govt.nz/About-Whanganui/Our-District/Te-Awa-Tupua-Whanganui-River-Settlement)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-whanganui](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-whanganui)
14. **Wanyama kama malengo** (2018 · Wazo)  
Fellow Creatures ya Korsgaard inasema, kutoka msingi wa Kant, kuwa wanyama ni malengo ndani yao wenyewe. Hatuwezi kuhesabu wema wetu wenyewe kuwa muhimu bila kuhesabu wema wa kiumbe chochote ambacho mambo yanaweza kwenda vizuri au vibaya kwake. Anakataa mtazamo wa Kant mwenyewe kuwa wajibu kuhusu wanyama ni wa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja tu.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant)  
Chanzo: [Korsgaard, Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals, Oxford University Press (2018); Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews](https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/fellow-creatures-our-obligations-to-the-other-animals/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-korsgaard](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-korsgaard)
15. **Mapitio ya kaa na pweza** (2021)  
Mapitio yaliyoongozwa na Jonathan Birch kwa serikali ya Uingereza yalichunguza zaidi ya tafiti 300\. Yalipendekeza kuwachukulia moluska sefalopodi na krasteshia dekapodi kuwa wanaoweza kuhisi kwa madhumuni ya sheria ya ustawi. Yaliweka vigezo vinane vya kuhukumu ushahidi wa uwezo wa kuhisi katika mnyama.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Tamko la Cambridge](#node-c-cambridge)  
Ilisababisha: [Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 ya Uingereza](#node-c-sentience-act) ; [Simamisha mateso ya sintetiki](#node-c-metzinger) ; [Tamko la New York](#node-c-ny-declaration)  
Chanzo: [Birch, Burn, Schnell, Browning & Crump, Review of the Evidence of Sentience in Cephalopod Molluscs and Decapod Crustaceans (LSE Consulting, 2021)](https://www.lse.ac.uk/business/consulting/reports/review-of-the-evidence-of-sentiences-in-cephalopod-molluscs-and-decapod-crustaceans)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-birch](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-birch)
16. **Simamisha mateso ya sintetiki** (2021 · Wazo)  
Metzinger (2021) alipendekeza marufuku ya kimataifa hadi 2050 kwa utafiti unaolenga, au unaohatarisha, kuunda fahamu bandia. Wasiwasi wake ni mlipuko unaowezekana wa uzoefu hasi katika viumbe vya sintetiki. Ukosoaji wa Krzanowski wa 2024 ulisema kuwa marufuku hiyo haina msingi imara kama ilivyotajwa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mapitio ya kaa na pweza](#node-c-birch) ; [Utetezi wa haki za AI](#node-c-schwitz-garza)  
Ilisababisha: [Viashiria vya ufahamu wa AI](#node-c-butlin)  
Chanzo: [Metzinger, ‘Artificial suffering: an argument for a global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology’, J. Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness 8 (2021) 43–66; critique: Krzanowski, Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 69 (2024) 335–352, doi:10.2478/slgr-2024–0023](https://doi.org/10.1142/S270507852150003X)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-metzinger](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-metzinger)
17. **Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali** (2021 · Wazo)  
Shulman na Bostrom wanasema kuwa kanuni za kimaadili zilizojengwa juu ya dhana za maisha ya binadamu huenda zisifae akili za kidijitali. Akili za kidijitali zinaweza kunakiliwa au kuharakishwa, au kuwa na madai makubwa yasiyo ya kawaida juu ya rasilimali. Wanataka marekebisho ya kanuni na taasisi. Pia wanataka kupanga ni akili zipi za kidijitali za kuunda.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Utetezi wa haki za AI](#node-c-schwitz-garza) ; [Pazia la ujinga](#node-g-rawls)  
Ilisababisha: [Miili mingi, kiumbe kimoja](#node-q-collective) ; [Taking AI welfare seriously](#node-c-long) ; [Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki](#node-q-cohesion) ; [Haki kutoka ndani ya uigaji](#node-q-own-rights)  
Chanzo: [Shulman & Bostrom, ‘Sharing the world with digital minds’, in Clarke, Zohny & Savulescu (eds.), Rethinking Moral Status (Oxford University Press, 2021) 306–326](https://stafforini.com/works/shulman-2021-sharing-world-digital/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-shulman](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-shulman)
18. **Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 ya Uingereza** (2022)  
Sheria hiyo, iliyopitishwa mwaka 2022, iliunda Kamati ya Uwezo wa Wanyama Kuhisi. Kamati huripoti kama sera ya serikali imezingatia ipasavyo ustawi wa wanyama. Sheria inafafanua wanyama kujumuisha wenye uti wa mgongo, moluska sefalopodi na krasteshia dekapodi. Wanyama wasio na uti wa mgongo waliongezwa kwenye Mswada baada ya mapitio ya 2021\. Waziri anaweza kupanua orodha kwa kanuni.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mapitio ya kaa na pweza](#node-c-birch)  
Chanzo: [Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022, c. 22 (UK)](https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/22)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-sentience-act](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-sentience-act)
19. **Viashiria vya ufahamu wa AI** (2023)  
Butlin, Long na wenzake walitoa sifa za viashiria kutoka nadharia za kisayansi za fahamu. Walikagua mifumo ya AI iliyopo dhidi yake. Walihitimisha kuwa hakuna mfumo wa sasa ulio mgombea mwenye nguvu. Hawakuona vikwazo dhahiri vya kujenga mifumo inayokidhi viashiria.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Simamisha mateso ya sintetiki](#node-c-metzinger)  
Ilisababisha: [Taking AI welfare seriously](#node-c-long)  
Chanzo: [Butlin et al., ‘Consciousness in artificial intelligence: insights from the science of consciousness’, arXiv:2308.08708 (2023)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2308.08708)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-butlin](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-butlin)
20. **Tamko la New York** (2024)  
Tamko hilo lilizinduliwa katika Chuo Kikuu cha New York tarehe 19 Aprili 2024\. Linasema kuna uungaji mkono mkubwa wa kisayansi kwa uzoefu wa fahamu kwa mamalia na ndege. Linasema kuna angalau uwezekano halisi wake katika wanyama wote wenye uti wa mgongo na wasio na uti wengi, wakiwemo wadudu. Linasema kupuuza uwezekano huo katika maamuzi yanayoathiri wanyama ni kutowajibika.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Tamko la Cambridge](#node-c-cambridge) ; [Mapitio ya kaa na pweza](#node-c-birch)  
Ilisababisha: [Taking AI welfare seriously](#node-c-long)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [The New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness (2024)](https://sites.google.com/nyu.edu/nydeclaration/declaration)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-ny-declaration](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-ny-declaration)
21. **Taking AI welfare seriously** (2024 · Wazo)  
Long, Sebo na wenzake wanasema kuna uwezekano halisi kwamba baadhi ya mifumo ya AI itakuwa na fahamu, au uwezo thabiti wa kujiamulia, katika siku za usoni zilizo karibu. Wanapendekeza kukiri suala hilo, kutathmini mifumo kwa dalili, na kujiandaa kwa sera. Hawadai kuwa mfumo wowote sasa una umuhimu wa kimaadili.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Viashiria vya ufahamu wa AI](#node-c-butlin) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Tamko la New York](#node-c-ny-declaration)  
Ilisababisha: [Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki](#node-q-cohesion) ; [Kanuni nyuma ya pazia pana zaidi](#node-q-veil-all)  
Chanzo: [Long, Sebo et al., ‘Taking AI welfare seriously’, arXiv:2411.00986 (2024)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2411.00986)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=c-long](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=c-long)
22. **Kanuni kwa akili za sintetiki** (Swali wazi)  
Je, kanuni zilizopatikana kwa shida zinazoshikilia jamii za binadamu pamoja zinapaswa kupanuliwa kwa akili za sintetiki? Na zipi? Kanuni dhidi ya kudanganya, za mgawo wa haki na za kupatana zilikua kati ya viumbe vinavyokufa, vinavyofanana, na ambavyo kunakiliwa kwao ni ghali. Haijaamuliwa ni zipi kati yake zinategemea masharti hayo.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Taking AI welfare seriously](#node-c-long) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Dhibiti wanaotaga mayai](#node-e-police) ; [Muaibishe mwenye kujisifu](#node-e-norms) ; [Jipe sheria](#node-g-kant)  
Fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi:
  * **Shulman na Bostrom** (2021): Inasema kuwa kanuni zilizojengwa juu ya dhana za kibinadamu zinaweza kuhitaji marekebisho wakati akili zinaweza kunakiliwa na kuwa na madai yasiyo ya kawaida juu ya rasilimali. [Rethinking Moral Status, Oxford University Press](https://stafforini.com/works/shulman-2021-sharing-world-digital/)
  * **Long, Sebo na wenzake** (2024): Inapendekeza kutathmini mifumo ya AI kwa fahamu na uwezo wa kujiamulia na kujiandaa kwa sera za jinsi inavyotendewa. [arXiv:2411.00986](https://arxiv.org/abs/2411.00986)
  * **Schwitzgebel na Garza** (2015): Inasema kuwa viumbe bandia vyenye sifa husika vingestahili haki zinazofanana, na kwamba ubunifu unapaswa kuzingatia hilo. [Midwest Studies in Philosophy 39](https://doi.org/10.1111/misp.12032)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=q-cohesion](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=q-cohesion)
23. **Haki kutoka ndani ya uigaji** (Swali wazi)  
Kama tunaishi katika uigaji, akili zetu zinaendeshwa kwenye kompyuta ya mtu mwingine, na hilo hutufanya kuwa akili bandia za aina fulani. Kwa hiyo hoja yoyote inayokataa haki kwa akili kwa sababu tu inaendeshwa kwenye kompyuta ingetunyima sisi pia haki hizo. Hoja zinazouliza kama mfumo unahisi kweli kitu chochote hazingetunyima. Kilicho muhimu ni aina ya hoja inayotolewa.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Utetezi wa haki za AI](#node-c-schwitz-garza) ; [Kushiriki na akili za kidijitali](#node-c-shulman) ; [Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika](#node-x-chalmers)  
Fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi:
  * **Bostrom** (2003): Inasema kuwa angalau moja ya mapendekezo matatu ni kweli, mojawapo likiwa kwamba karibu hakika tunaishi katika uigaji wa kompyuta. [Philosophical Quarterly 53 (211)](https://simulation-argument.com/simulation.pdf)
  * **Schwitzgebel na Garza** (2015): Inasema kuwa viumbe bandia vyenye sifa husika vingestahili haki zinazofanana, na kwamba ubunifu unapaswa kuzingatia hilo. [Midwest Studies in Philosophy 39](https://doi.org/10.1111/misp.12032)
  * **Chalmers** (2022): Inasema kuwa dunia pepe ni uhalisia halisi na kwamba viumbe ndani yake vinaweza kuwa na fahamu, na inauliza tuna deni gani kwa viumbe kama hivyo. [Reality+, W. W. Norton](https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393635805)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=q-own-rights](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=q-own-rights)

## Gharama ya ulinzi

1. **Karamu ya ndege wa baharini** (karne ya 4–2 KK (sura ya nje 18; sura za ndani ni za awali zaidi) · Wazo)  
Katika Zhuangzi sura ya 18, Marquis wa Lu anamkaribisha ndege wa baharini hekaluni mwa mababu zake kwa divai, muziki na nyama ya ng’ombe. Anakufa ndani ya siku tatu. Hoja ni kwamba kumtendea kiumbe kingine kwa kile kitakachokupendeza wewe kunaweza kukiua. Njia ya kiumbe chenyewe ya kuishi ndiyo kipimo cha wema wake.  
Ilisababisha: [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Chanzo: [Zhuangzi, ch. 18 (‘Supreme Happiness’); Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Zhuangzi’](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhuangzi/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-seabird](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-seabird)
2. **Kanuni ya madhara** (1859 · Wazo)  
Katika On Liberty, Mill alisema kuwa mamlaka yanaweza kutumika dhidi ya mapenzi ya mtu tu kuzuia madhara kwa wengine. Manufaa ya mtu mwenyewe si sababu ya kutosha. Aliruhusu kumzuia mtu asivuke daraja lisilo salama, kama kisa cha kutojua hatari.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Hesabu matokeo](#node-g-util)  
Ilisababisha: [Ulezi wa kulazimisha](#node-p-dworkin) ; [Haki ya kuchagua hatari](#node-p-carter) ; [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Chanzo: [Mill, On Liberty (1859), Project Gutenberg; SEP, ‘John Stuart Mill’](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34901)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-mill](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-mill)
3. **Ulezi wa kulazimisha** (1972 · Wazo)  
Insha ya Dworkin inaeleza ni lini kuingilia uhuru wa mtu kwa manufaa yake mwenyewe kunaweza kuhalalishwa. Anapendekeza kuwa kunaweza kuhalalishwa pale watu wangekubali kama watu wenye busara. Makala hiyo ilisaidia kuunda uwanja wa mjadala kuhusu ulezi wa kulazimisha.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kanuni ya madhara](#node-p-mill)  
Ilisababisha: [Haki ya kuchagua hatari](#node-p-carter) ; [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Chanzo: [Dworkin, ‘Paternalism’, The Monist 56 (1972) 64–84; SEP, ‘Paternalism’](https://doi.org/10.5840/monist197256119)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-dworkin](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-dworkin)
4. **Maisha ya porini yana thamani** (1980–1984 · Wazo)  
Callicott (1980) na Sagoff (1984) walisema kuwa kujali ustawi wa kila mnyama, kwa uthabiti, kungehitaji kumaliza uwindaji. Hilo lingeharibu jamii za porini ambazo maadili ya mazingira huthamini. Walihitimisha kuwa ukombozi wa wanyama na maadili ya mazingira hayawezi kushiriki nadharia moja.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75)  
Ilisababisha: [Wasaidie wanyama wa porini](#node-p-horta) ; [Kurejesha porini](#node-p-rewild)  
Chanzo: [Callicott, ‘Animal liberation: a triangular affair’, Environmental Ethics 2 (1980) 311–338](https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics19802424)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-callicott](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-callicott)
5. **Kurejesha porini** (1998 · Wazo)  
Soule na Noss (1998) walipendekeza kurejesha porini. Inamaanisha kurejesha viini vikubwa vilivyolindwa, korido za kuunganisha na wanyama wawindaji wakuu kote bara ili asili ya porini ijiendeshe yenyewe. Mkabala unaomba binadamu wasogee nyuma na kukubali madhara yaliyomo katika maisha ya porini.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Maisha ya porini yana thamani](#node-p-callicott)  
Chanzo: [Soule & Noss, ‘Rewilding and biodiversity: complementary goals for continental conservation’, Wild Earth 8(3) (1998) 18–28](https://ef-journal.ub.uni-muenchen.de/ef-we/article/view/49)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-rewild](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-rewild)
6. **Wasaidie wanyama wa porini** (2010 · Wazo)  
Horta (2010) alisema kuwa wanyama wa porini huteseka kwa njaa, magonjwa na uwindaji. Kwa hiyo mkabala unaohesabu maslahi yao unapaswa kulenga kupunguza madhara hayo, si kuweka mifumo ikolojia kama ilivyo. Alitoa kurejeshwa kwa mbwa-mwitu kama kisa ambapo malengo hayo mawili yanagongana.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Animal Liberation](#node-c-singer75) ; [Maisha ya porini yana thamani](#node-p-callicott)  
Chanzo: [Horta, ‘The ethics of the ecology of fear against the nonspeciesist paradigm’, Between the Species 13(10) (2010)](https://doi.org/10.15368/bts.2010v13n10.10)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-horta](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-horta)
7. **Hifadhi au porini** (2013–2015)  
Sera ya 2013 ya India ya mabwawa ya pomboo na amri ya mahakama ya Argentina ya kumhamisha Sandra hadi hifadhi zote mbili zinachukulia kufungwa kuwa gharama kwa mnyama. Zote zinabadilisha namna moja ya maisha yanayolindwa na nyingine. Hakuna inayosema kama hifadhi ni nzuri kwa mnyama kama uhuru.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Pomboo kama watu](#node-c-india)  
Ilisababisha: [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Vyanzo vinaiacha tarehe au dai hili bila uhakika.  
Chanzo: [AP, ‘Orangutan granted “personhood” settles into new Florida home’ (7 November 2019)](https://www.boston.com/news/animals/2019/11/07/orangutan-granted-personhood-settles-into-new-florida-home/)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-captive](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-captive)
8. **Haki ya kuchagua hatari** (2015)  
Katika Carter v Canada (2015), Mahakama Kuu ya Kanada iliamua kwa kauli moja kuwa marufuku ya kusaidiwa kufa ilivunja haki ya maisha, uhuru na usalama wa mtu. Hilo lilitumika kwa watu wazima wenye uwezo wanaoteseka kupita kiasi. Linalinda uchaguzi wa mtu mzima mwenye uwezo wa kufa kwa msaada wa kitabibu, kwa hali mbaya isiyoweza kupona na ndani ya kinga kali. Uamuzi ulianza kutumika mwaka 2016.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Kanuni ya madhara](#node-p-mill) ; [Ulezi wa kulazimisha](#node-p-dworkin)  
Ilisababisha: [Kuchagua maisha pepe](#node-q-choose-being)  
Chanzo: [Carter v. Canada (Attorney General), 2015 SCC 5](https://jackmanlaw.utoronto.ca/asper/carter-v-canada-attorney-general)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=p-carter](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=p-carter)
9. **Kuchagua maisha pepe** (Swali wazi)  
Kama mtu anachagua kuishi kama kiumbe cha aina nyingine katika uigaji, je, ulinzi wetu unaheshimu uchaguzi huo, au unauzuia? Kanuni zilezile zinazowakinga watu na madhara wasiyoyaona hutumika kupindua chaguzi walizofanya. Kanuni hazitoi jaribio wazi la kujua maisha pepe yaliyochaguliwa ni ya kundi lipi kati ya hayo mawili.  
Imejengwa juu ya: [Mashine ya uzoefu](#node-x-machine) ; [Je, maisha pepe yanahesabika](#node-x-chalmers) ; [Kanuni ya madhara](#node-p-mill) ; [Ulezi wa kulazimisha](#node-p-dworkin) ; [Haki ya kuchagua hatari](#node-p-carter) ; [Hifadhi au porini](#node-p-captive) ; [Karamu ya ndege wa baharini](#node-p-seabird)  
Fikra zilizochapishwa zilizo karibu zaidi:
  * **Nozick** (1974): Inasema kuwa watu wengi wangekataa mashine inayotoa uzoefu uliochaguliwa, kwa kuwa tunataka kuwa na kufanya, si kuhisi tu. [Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Basic Books](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/)
  * **Chalmers** (2022): Inasema kuwa dunia pepe ni uhalisia halisi na kwamba mtu anaweza kuishi maisha yenye maana ndani yake. [Reality+, W. W. Norton](https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393635805)
  * **Mill** (1859): Inaruhusu kuingilia tu ili kuzuia madhara kwa wengine, kwa hali finyu ya kuonya kuhusu hatari ambayo mtu hajui. [On Liberty, ch. 1 and 5](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34901)  
Anwani: [/trees/ethics?n=q-choose-being](https://simulation-hypothesis.com/sw/trees/ethics?n=q-choose-being)