Bishiyar ɗabi’a · inda ƙa’idojinmu suka fito, da inda suke zuwa

Dakatar da mai cin riba kyauta (asali ba shi da kwanan wata; an gwada 2004 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

Bakteriya da yawa suna sakin molecules masu tsada, kamar siderophores masu tara ƙarfe, waɗanda ke taimaka wa kowace ƙwayar halitta ta kusa. Mutants da suka daina biyan farashin amma suna ci gaba da amfani da samfurin za su iya yaɗuwa. Griffin, West da Buckling (2004) sun nuna a Pseudomonas aeruginosa cewa nawa haɗin kai ke tsira yana dogara ne a kan abubuwa biyu. Ɗaya shi ne yadda maƙwabta suke da dangantaka. Ɗayan kuma shi ne ma’aunin da suke fafatawa a kai.

Ya kai ga: Yarjejeniyar sel da yawa; Haɗa kwayoyin halittarka

Tushe: Griffin, West & Buckling, ‘Cooperation and competition in pathogenic bacteria’, Nature 430 (2004) 1024–1027

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-pubgoods

Yarjejeniyar sel da yawa (aƙalla shekaru biliyan 1 da suka wuce · An fahimta ga kakanni)

A jiki mai sel da yawa yawancin sel suna barin haihuwarsu. Layin haihuwa ne kawai ke miƙa kwayoyin halitta. Wannan yarjejeniyar haɗin kai ce tsakanin sel. Burbushin mafi tsufa da aka tabbatar da shekarunsa mai sel masu bambanci shi ne jan algae Bangiomorpha, kusan shekaru biliyan 1.05. Akwai iƙirari na eukaryotes masu sel da yawa mafi tsufa. Ainihin asalin ya riga haka, kuma ya faru sau da yawa.

An gina a kan: Dakatar da mai cin riba kyauta

Ya kai ga: Ciwon daji yana karya ƙa’idodi

Tushe: Gibson et al., ‘Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis’, Geology 46 (2018) 135–138

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-multicell

Haɗa kwayoyin halittarka (fiye da shekaru biliyan 1 da suka wuce · An fahimta ga kakanni)

A haihuwa ta jima’i, mutane biyu kowanne yana ba da rabin kwayoyin halitta na tsara ta gaba. Aiki ne na haɗin gwiwa, don haka sel suna buƙatar ƙa’idodi game da kwayoyin halittar wane ne ke wucewa. Comparative genomics yana nuna cewa meiosis da jima’i sun riga sun wanzu a kakan ƙarshe na bai ɗaya na eukaryotes masu rai. Don haka al’adar ta fi shekaru biliyan ɗaya tsufa nesa.

An gina a kan: Dakatar da mai cin riba kyauta

Ya kai ga: Kula da ƙanana

Tushe: Speijer, Lukes & Elias, ‘Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life’, PNAS 112 (2015) 8827–8834

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-sex

Kula da ƙanana (kusan shekaru miliyan 450 da suka wuce · An fahimta ga kakanni)

Ordovician ostracod crustaceans, kusan shekaru miliyan 450, an adana su da ƙwai da amfrayo a cikin harsashi. Wannan shaidar burbushi ce kai tsaye ta kula da ƙanana. Kula na nufin biyan farashi don kare rayuwar wani. Wannan shi ne mafi tsufan lamari a wannan bishiyar.

An gina a kan: Haɗa kwayoyin halittarka

Ya kai ga: Taimaka wa danginka

Tushe: Siveter et al., ‘Exceptionally preserved 450-million-year-old Ordovician ostracods with brood care’, Current Biology 24 (2014) 801–806

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-parental

Taimaka wa danginka (an bayyana ƙa’ida 1964 · Shawara)

Hamilton (1964) ya nuna cewa kwayar halitta ta taimaka wa wasu za ta iya yaɗuwa. Tana yaɗuwa idan asarar da mai taimako ke yi ta fi ƙanƙanta da amfanin wanda aka taimaka, wanda aka auna da yadda suke da dangantaka. Wannan ƙa’idar inclusive-fitness ita ce daidaitaccen mafari don bayyana dalilin da dabbobi ke taimaka wa danginsu.

An gina a kan: Kula da ƙanana

Ya kai ga: Mayar da alheri; Sarauniya ɗaya, ma’aikata da yawa; Ciyar da abokin wurin kwana mai jin yunwa; Yi wa iyali gargaɗi; Yi sulhu bayan faɗa; The Expanding Circle

Tushe: Hamilton, ‘The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II’, J. Theoretical Biology 7 (1964) 1–52

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-kin

Mayar da alheri (ka’ida 1971, 1981 · Shawara)

Trivers (1971) ya yi hujja cewa taimakon waɗanda ba dangi ba zai iya bunƙasa ta juyin halitta idan masu taimako suna iya sake haɗuwa kuma ana mayar da alheri. Axelrod da Hamilton (1981) sun gudanar da gasar kwamfuta. Ta nuna cewa haɗin kai na sharaɗi zai iya ɗorewa a tsakanin ’yan wasa masu son kansu.

An gina a kan: Taimaka wa danginka

Ya kai ga: Ciyar da abokin wurin kwana mai jin yunwa; Rabon adalci; Raba, ka zama kana bin wasu bashi

Tushe: Trivers, ‘The evolution of reciprocal altruism’, Q. Rev. Biol. 46 (1971) 35–57; Axelrod & Hamilton, Science 211 (1981) 1390–1396

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-reciprocity

Sarauniya ɗaya, ma’aikata da yawa (fiye da shekaru miliyan 66 da suka wuce · An fahimta ga kakanni)

A cikin gungun tururuwa yawancin mata ba sa haihuwa. Suna aiki wa sarauniya. An haɓaka ka’idar inclusive-fitness don bayyana wannan rabo. Wani molecular phylogeny mai kwanan wata ya sanya babban rarrabuwar tururuwa a Late Cretaceous zuwa Early Eocene. Kakannin yawancin ƙananan iyalai sun fi tsufa.

An gina a kan: Taimaka wa danginka

Ya kai ga: Sa ido kan masu kwai

Tushe: Moreau, Bell, Vila, Archibald & Pierce, ‘Phylogeny of the ants: diversification in the age of angiosperms’, Science 312 (2006) 101–104

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-eusocial

Ciwon daji yana karya ƙa’idodi (tsoho kamar rayuwa mai sel da yawa · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

Aktipis da abokan aikinsa sun bitar ciwon daji a matsayin gazawar haɗin kai tsakanin sel. Yana karya ƙa’idodin iyakance rabuwa, mutuwa a kan lokaci, raba aiki, raba albarkatu da kiyaye kyallen da ke kewaye. Sun gano ƙaruwar rashin tsari irin ta ciwon daji a kowane nau’in rayuwa mai sel da yawa da suka bincika.

An gina a kan: Yarjejeniyar sel da yawa

Ya kai ga: Sa ido kan masu kwai

Tushe: Aktipis et al., ‘Cancer across the tree of life: cooperation and cheating in multicellularity’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 370 (2015) 20140219

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-cancer

Sa ido kan masu kwai (an lura 1989 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

A cikin gungun zuman zuma, ma’aikata suna cin ƙwai da wasu ma’aikata suka yi. Ta haka ’ya’yan sarauniya ne ake rene su. Ratnieks da Wenseleers sun bitar irin wannan sa ido a al’ummomin kwari. Suna bayyana shi a matsayin hanyar danne waɗanda ke haihuwa don cutar da gungun.

An gina a kan: Sarauniya ɗaya, ma’aikata da yawa; Ciwon daji yana karya ƙa’idodi

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba

Tushe: Ratnieks & Visscher, ‘Worker policing in the honeybee’, Nature 342 (1989) 796–797; Ratnieks & Wenseleers, ‘Policing insect societies’, Science 307 (2005) 54–55

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-police

Ciyar da abokin wurin kwana mai jin yunwa (an lura 1984 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

Wilkinson (1984) ya gano cewa jemagu masu shan jini na daji suna fitar da jini ga abokan wurin kwana da suka kasa ciyarwa. Rabawa ya dogara da dangantaka da kuma damar mayar da alheri, kowanne da kansa. Wani bincike na daga baya na Carter da Wilkinson ya gano cewa taimakon da ya gabata yana hasashen rabawa fiye da dangantaka. Mu’amala ta daidai a can an goyi bayanta, ba a tabbatar ba.

An gina a kan: Mayar da alheri; Taimaka wa danginka

Tushe: Wilkinson, ‘Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat’, Nature 308 (1984) 181–184

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-bats

Yi wa iyali gargaɗi (an lura 1983 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

Hoogland (1983) ya yi nazarin kiran gargaɗi a prairie dogs masu wutsiyar baƙi. Ya ba da rahoton cewa masu kira sun fi yiwuwa su yi gargaɗi lokacin da danginsu na kusa suke kusa. Taƙaitawa na daga baya sun faɗaɗa tsarin zuwa dangi masu nisa.

An gina a kan: Taimaka wa danginka

Tushe: Hoogland, ‘Nepotism and alarm calling in the black-tailed prairie dog’, Animal Behaviour 31 (1983) 472–479

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-prairie

Rabon adalci (an lura 2003 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

Brosnan da de Waal (2003) sun ba da rahoton cewa birai capuchin sun ƙi ladan da suka karɓa a baya, da zarar abokin tarayya ya sami mafi kyau don aiki ɗaya. Wani sharhin Nature ya yi hujja cewa sakamakon yana nuna ƙin lada mafi muni lokacin da ake ganin mafi kyau. Ya ce ba lallai ne suna nuna ƙin rashin daidaito ba.

An gina a kan: Mayar da alheri

Ya kai ga: Raba, ka zama kana bin wasu bashi

Tushe: Brosnan & de Waal, ‘Monkeys reject unequal pay’, Nature 425 (2003) 297–299

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-capuchin

Yi sulhu bayan faɗa (an lura 1979 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

De Waal da van Roosmalen (1979) sun gano a Arnhem Zoo cewa chimpanzees da suka yi faɗa sun yi tuntuɓar jiki jim kaɗan bayan haka. Sun kira wannan sulhu. Wani bincike na gaba kan chimpanzees na daji ya gano sulhu ya fi ƙaranci nesa fiye da a tsare.

An gina a kan: Taimaka wa danginka

Ya kai ga: Ma’aikata suna mulkin shugaba

Tushe: de Waal & van Roosmalen, ‘Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees’, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 5 (1979) 55–66

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-chimp-repair

Raba, ka zama kana bin wasu bashi (an lura 1989 · An lura a cikin halittu masu rai)

De Waal (1989) ya ba da rahoton cewa chimpanzees suna raba abinci da sauƙi da waɗanda suka yi musu gyaran jiki ko suka tallafa musu, kamar suna riƙe lissafin abin da ya wajaba a kansu. Mamayewa da ƙawance suna tsara wanda ke raba da wane. Don haka rabawa ba amsa ga buƙata kawai ba ne.

An gina a kan: Mayar da alheri; Rabon adalci

Ya kai ga: Ma’aikata suna mulkin shugaba

Tushe: de Waal, ‘Food sharing and reciprocal obligations among chimpanzees’, J. Human Evolution 18 (1989) 433–459

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-foodshare

Ma’aikata suna mulkin shugaba (an sake gina shi ga masu farauta · An fahimta ga kakanni)

Boehm (1993) ya yi hujja, daga bincike na al’adu da yawa, cewa masu farauta masu daidaito suna sa shugabanni a cikin hannu. Suna haɗuwa don yin ba’a, kaurace ko cire duk wanda ya yi ƙoƙarin mamayewa. Ya ɗauki wannan a matsayin juyawar tsarin mamayewa da ake samu a manyan birai.

An gina a kan: Yi sulhu bayan faɗa; Raba, ka zama kana bin wasu bashi

Ya kai ga: Wulaƙanta mai fahariya

Tushe: Boehm, ‘Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy’, Current Anthropology 34 (1993) 227–254

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-reverse

Wulaƙanta mai fahariya (an lura 1990s–2005 · An fahimta ga kakanni)

Wiessner (2005) ya yi rikodin yadda Ju/‘hoansi, masu farauta na Kalahari, suke tilasta ƙa’idodi ta hanyar tsegumi, suka da, da wuya kuma, tashin hankali na ƙungiya. Ta gano cewa yawancin rikici ana magance shi da magana. Ɓangare na uku da ba a cutar da su ne ke tilasta. Yana nuna yadda za a iya kiyaye ƙa’idodi ba tare da ƙasa ba. Waɗannan mutane masu rai ne da tarihinsu. Don haka binciken shaida ne game da yadda tilastawa ke aiki, ba hoton kakanninmu ba.

An gina a kan: Ma’aikata suna mulkin shugaba

Ya kai ga: Dokokin farko da aka rubuta; Kada ka cutar da kowace rayuwa; Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka; Ƙa’idodi biyar; Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba

Tushe: Wiessner, ‘Norm enforcement among the Ju/‘hoansi Bushmen’, Human Nature 16 (2005) 115–145

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=e-norms

Dokokin farko da aka rubuta (kusan 2100 K.Z.)

Dokar Ur-Nammu, daga birnin Ur na Sumer, ita ce mafi tsufan dokar da aka rubuta da ta tsira. Tana kafa biyan kuɗi tabbatacce ga raunuka. Ƙa’ida da mai mulki ya buga ta maye gurbin sulhu da ba a rubuta ba.

An gina a kan: Wulaƙanta mai fahariya

Ya kai ga: Dokar Hammurabi

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Ur-Nammu’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-urnammu

Dokar Hammurabi (kusan 1754 K.Z.)

Hammurabi na Babila yana da kusan dokoki 280 da aka sassaƙa a kan dutse. Suna bayyana hukunci bisa laifi da matsayin mutanen da abin ya shafa. Dokar tana gabatar da dokokin a matsayin dokokin da sarki ya bayar da amincewar alloli.

An gina a kan: Dokokin farko da aka rubuta

Ya kai ga: Dokokin Goma; Mai kyau ne saboda Allah ya ce haka?

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Code of Hammurabi’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-hammurabi

Dokokin Goma (shekaru dubu na farko K.Z. (ana jayayya kan kwanan wata))

Littafi Mai Tsarki na Ibrananci ya ba da dokoki goma, a Fitowa 20 da Kubawar Shari’a 5. An tsara su a matsayin ƙa’idodi da Allah ya faɗa wa jama’a da aka ɗaure da alkawari. Suna rufe ibada, ranar hutu, girmama iyaye, kisa, zina, sata, shaidar ƙarya da kwaɗayi.

An gina a kan: Dokar Hammurabi

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idar Zinariya; Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka; Doka daga wahayi; Hankali ko wahayi?

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Ten Commandments’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-decalogue

Ƙa’idar Zinariya (daga kusan 500 K.Z., al’adu da yawa · Shawara)

Sigogin ƙa’idar yi wa wasu kamar yadda kake so a yi maka suna bayyana a rubuce-rubucen Confucian, Yahudawa, Kirista, Buddha, Hindu da sauransu. Wasu an rubuta su da tabbatarwa wasu kuma da hanawa. Maimaituwarta a duk al’adu ana ambatonta a matsayin shaida ta tushen bai ɗaya a cikin mu’amala ta daidai tsakanin mutane.

An gina a kan: Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka; Dokokin Goma; Ƙa’idodi biyar

Ya kai ga: Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Golden Rule’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-golden

Rayu da hankali da yanayi (daga kusan 300 K.Z. · Shawara)

Stoics, tun daga Zeno na Citium, sun koyar da cewa kirki shi ne alheri ɗaya tilo. Mutum ya kamata ya rayu bisa yarjejeniya da hankali da yanayi. Stoics na daga baya kamar Hierocles sun bayyana da’irori masu tsakiya ɗaya na damuwa, suna faɗaɗa daga kai zuwa dukan bil’adama.

An gina a kan: Zoben Gyges

Ya kai ga: Doka ta halitta

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Stoicism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-stoics

Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka (ƙarni na 1 Z.M. · Shawara)

Huɗubar kan Dutse a Linjilar Matta tana motsa ƙa’idodi daga ayyukan waje zuwa niyya. Tana faɗaɗa damuwa zuwa abokan gaba. Kiristanci ya ɗauki dokokin Littafi Mai Tsarki na Ibrananci a matsayin tushensa kuma ya ƙara ƙa’idar ƙaunar maƙwabci.

An gina a kan: Dokokin Goma; Ƙa’idar Zinariya

Ya kai ga: Doka daga wahayi; Doka ta halitta; Ba kanka doka; Idan babu Allah; Mutuwar Allah

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Sermon on the Mount’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-christian

Doka daga wahayi (ƙarni na 7 Z.M. · Shawara)

A Musulunci, Alƙur’ani da misalin Muhammad su ne tushen shari’a. Gungun ayyuka ne da ke rufe ibada, iyali, ciniki da hukunci. Masana shari’a sun haɓaka ƙa’idodin ta hanyar fassara cikin ƙarnoni masu biyo baya.

An gina a kan: Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka; Dokokin Goma

Ya kai ga: Hankali ko wahayi?

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Sharia’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-islam

Hankali ko wahayi? (ƙarni na 8–13 Z.M. · Shawara)

Mu’tazila (misali ‘Abd al-Jabbar, ya rasu 1025) sun ɗauka cewa ana iya sanin ƙimar ayyuka gabaɗaya ta hankali. Ash’arites (al-Ash’ari, ya rasu 935 ko 936) ba su yarda ba. A wurinsu alheri da mugunta umarnin Allah ne ke ƙayyade su kuma ana sanin su ta wahayi. Avicenna, Averroes da Maimonides sun haɓaka Aristotle a cikin dokar Musulunci da ta Yahudawa. Aquinas ya yi amfani da su. Ya kira Averroes ‘Mai Sharhi’ kuma ya bi Avicenna da Maimonides a tambayoyi da dama.

An gina a kan: Doka daga wahayi; Dokokin Goma; Kirki al’ada ce

Ya kai ga: Doka ta halitta

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aquinas’; ‘Maimonides’; Hare, God’s Command, ch. 6 (Oxford University Press, 2015)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-reason-revelation

Doka ta halitta (1265–1274 · Shawara)

Summa Theologiae ta Aquinas ta yi hujja cewa akwai doka da hankali zai iya ganowa. Tana ɗaure dukan mutane, kuma dokar ɗan adam ya kamata ta bi ta. Tunanin yana haɗa tunanin Stoic da na Roma, Aristotle, koyarwar Kirista, da aikin masana falsafa na Musulunci da Yahudawa kamar Avicenna, Averroes da Maimonides, waɗanda Aquinas ya yi amfani da su.

An gina a kan: Rayu da hankali da yanayi; Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka; Kirki al’ada ce; Hankali ko wahayi?

Ya kai ga: Haƙƙoƙi daga yanayi

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aquinas’s Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-natlaw

Haƙƙoƙi daga yanayi (1689 · Shawara)

Second Treatise of Government na Locke yana ɗauka cewa a yanayin halitta kowa yana da haƙƙoƙin halitta ga rayuwa, ’yanci da dukiya. Gwamnati tana wanzuwa don kare su. Haƙƙoƙin halitta suna ba daidaikun mutane iƙirari da babu mai mulki da zai soke.

An gina a kan: Doka ta halitta

Ya kai ga: Sanarwar Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Locke’s Political Philosophy’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-locke

Kada ka cutar da kowace rayuwa (kusan ƙarni na 6–5 K.Z. · Shawara)

Koyarwar Jain, da ke da alaƙa da Mahavira, ta mai da ahimsa aikin farko. Ahimsa na nufin guje wa cutar da kowace halitta mai rai. Ya shafi dabbobi da shuke-shuke. Yana ɗaya daga cikin mafi tsufan ƙa’idodi da da’irar damuwarsu ta wuce ɗan adam.

An gina a kan: Wulaƙanta mai fahariya

Ya kai ga: Gaskiya mai fuskoki da yawa

Tushe: Britannica, ‘Ahimsa’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-jain

Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka (kusan 500 K.Z. · Shawara)

Analects, da ake dangantawa da Confucius da ɗalibansa, suna kafa rayuwar ɗabi’a a kan ayyuka a cikin iyali da ƙasa. Girmama iyaye (xiao) shi ne tushe. Al’ada (li) tana ba da siffa ga hali. Ren, mutuntaka, shi ne halin mutum abin koyi (junzi). Mu’amala ta daidai (shu) tana ba da ƙa’idar kamewa: kada ka yi wa wasu abin da ba za ka so a yi maka ba (Analects 15.24).

An gina a kan: Wulaƙanta mai fahariya

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idar Zinariya; Sanarwar Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam; Tsirrai na alheri; Halin ɗan adam mummuna ne; Kula ba tare da matakai ba

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Confucius’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-confucius

Ƙa’idodi biyar (kusan ƙarni na 5 K.Z. · Shawara)

Ayyukan masu bin Buddha sun haɗa da ƙa’idodi biyar. Daina kisa, sata, mummunan aikin jima’i, ƙarya da abubuwan maye. An tsara su a matsayin ƙa’idodin horo da mutum ke ɗauka. Ba umarni ne daga wani abin bauta ba.

An gina a kan: Wulaƙanta mai fahariya

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idar Zinariya; Ashoka yana kare dabbobi

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-buddha

Babu alloli, babu rayuwar bayan mutuwa (Ajita: kusan ƙarni na 5 K.Z.; makarantar Cārvāka: an tabbatar da ita ne kawai a rahotanni na daga baya · Shawara)

Ajita Kesakambalī malami ne da Pali Sāmaññaphala Sutta (DN 2) ya sanya a zamanin Buddha. An ba da rahoton cewa ya koyar da cewa babu wata duniya. Kyauta da hadayu ba su da amfani. Wawa da mai hikima duka suna yankewa a mutuwa. Makarantar Cārvāka ko Lokāyata ta daga baya ita ce al’adar Indiya da aka fi sani da cikakken materialism ba tare da alloli ba. Rubutunta sun ɓace. Muna sanin ta galibi daga abokan hamayya, waɗanda ke bayyana ɗabi’arta a matsayin neman jin daɗi.

Tushe: Dīgha Nikāya 2 (Sāmaññaphala Sutta), Ajita Kesakambalī section; Britannica, ‘Carvaka’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-carvaka

Mai kyau ne saboda Allah ya ce haka? (kusan 380 K.Z. · Shawara)

A Euthyphro na Plato, Socrates ya yi tambaya. Shin alloli suna son mai ibada domin mai ibada ne? Ko kuwa mai ibada ne domin suna son shi? Tambayar tana raba abin da yake daidai da wanda ke ba da umarni.

An gina a kan: Dokar Hammurabi

Tushe: Plato, Euthyphro (trans. Jowett), Project Gutenberg

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-euthyphro

Zoben Gyges (kusan 375 K.Z. · Shawara)

A Republic Book II, Glaucon yana ba da labarin zobe da ke sa mai sanya shi ba a gani. Yana tambaya ko wani zai kasance mai adalci idan zai iya yin aiki ba tare da an gan shi ko a hukunta shi ba. Shi ne mafi tsufan sanannen gwajin hali ba tare da shaidu ba kuma ba tare da sakamako ba.

Ya kai ga: Kirki al’ada ce; Rayu da hankali da yanayi; Ka ɗauka kai kaɗai ne

Tushe: Plato, Republic, Book II (trans. Jowett), Project Gutenberg

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-gyges

Kirki al’ada ce (kusan 340 K.Z. · Shawara)

A Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle ya yi hujja cewa rayuwa mai kyau aiki ne daidai da kirki. Ana samar da kyawawan halaye ta hanyar al’ada. Ana auna su a kan matsakaici tsakanin matsananci. Tambayar tana canjawa daga abin da aka hana zuwa wane irin mutum za a zama.

An gina a kan: Zoben Gyges

Ya kai ga: Doka ta halitta; Zaɓi wane ne kai; Hankali ko wahayi?

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Aristotle’s Ethics’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=a-aristotle

Tsirrai na alheri (ƙarni na 4 K.Z. · Shawara)

Mencius ya ɗauka cewa halin ɗan adam yana karkata zuwa ga alheri. Kowa yana da farkon ‘tsiro’ na tausayi, kunya, girmamawa da yarda da rashin yarda. Tarbiyya za ta iya renon su ko hana su girma. Hujjarsa ita ce yaro da ke gab da faɗawa rijiya. Kowa zai amsa da firgita da tausayi, ba tare da tunanin lada ko suna ba (Mencius 2A6).

An gina a kan: Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka; Kula ba tare da matakai ba

Ya kai ga: Halin ɗan adam mummuna ne

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Mencius’; Mencius 2A6, 6A6

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-mencius

Alloli ba sa kallo (kusan 300 K.Z. · Shawara)

Epicurus ya koyar da cewa alloli suna wanzuwa amma ba sa shiga cikin al’amuran ɗan adam. Don haka babu hukuncin Ubangiji da za a ji tsoro. Ya koyar da cewa adalci yarjejeniya ce ta rashin cutar da juna. Ya ɗauka cewa aikata ba daidai ba mummuna ne saboda ba za ka iya tabbata ka tsere wa ganowa ba, ko samun kwanciyar hankali daga baya.

Ya kai ga: Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata; Ƙirga sakamako; Gajiyar rayuwa har abada

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Epicurus’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-epicurus

Halin ɗan adam mummuna ne (ƙarni na 3 K.Z. · Shawara)

Xunzi, shi ma mabiyin Confucius, ya ɗauka cewa ‘halin ɗan adam mummuna ne’ (babi na 23). Idan aka bar su, muradunmu suna haifar da faɗa, kuma alheri abu ne da aka yi. Sarakunan masu hikima sun kafa al’ada da ƙa’idodi don sake tsara buri. Ya ɗauki Sama a matsayin tsarin yau da kullum na yanayi, wanda ba ya ba da lada ko hukunci (babi na 17).

An gina a kan: Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka; Tsirrai na alheri

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Xunzi’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-xunzi

Gaskiya mai fuskoki da yawa (tushen canonical; tsarin gargajiya kusan ƙarni na 5–8 Z.M. (kwanakin ba su da tabbas) · Shawara)

Jain anekantavada yana ɗauka cewa gaskiya tana da fuskoki da yawa, don haka babu magana ɗaya da za ta ɗauke ta. Syadvada yana sanya syat (‘a wata fuska’) a gaban kowane iƙirari kuma yana jera iƙirari zuwa siffofi bakwai. Masana falsafar Jain na daga baya, ciki har da Siddhasena Divakara da Samantabhadra, sun haɓaka ta zuwa hanya. Tana auna ra’ayoyi masu hamayya ba tare da watsi da ɗayansu gaba ɗaya ba.

An gina a kan: Kada ka cutar da kowace rayuwa

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Jain Philosophy’; Matilal, The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekanta-vada), 1981

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-anekanta

Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata (1739–1740 · Shawara)

A A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume ya yi hujja cewa bambance-bambancen ɗabi’a suna zuwa daga ji, ba daga hankali kawai ba. Ya lura cewa marubuta suna motsawa daga maganganu na abin da yake zuwa abin da ya kamata ya zama, ba tare da bayyana matakin ba. Masu karatu har yanzu suna jayayya kan abin da yake nufi: cewa babu irin wannan fitar da ƙarshe da za ta taɓa zama ingantacciya, ko kuma kawai tana buƙatar hujja.

An gina a kan: Alloli ba sa kallo

Ya kai ga: Lamiri daga ilhami; Ba kanka doka; Ƙirga sakamako; Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Hume’s Moral Philosophy’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-hume

Ba kanka doka (1785 · Shawara)

Groundwork na Kant ya yi hujja cewa mutum mai hankali yana ɗaure da dokar da ya ba kansa. Ana gwada ta ta hanyoyi biyu. Ɗaya shi ne tambaya ko za ka iya nufin ƙa’idar ga kowa. Ɗayan kuma shi ne tsarin ɗan adam: ɗauki ɗan adam, a cikin kanka da wasu, ba a matsayin hanya kawai ba. Dokar ba ta buƙatar mai ba da umarni na Allah. Amma Kant ya ɗauka cewa mafi girman alheri, kirki da aka daidaita da farin ciki, yana buƙatar zaton Allah da rai madawwami. Ya kuma ɗauka cewa ayyukanmu game da dabbobi na kaikaice ne kawai, da ake bin ɗan adam.

An gina a kan: Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata; Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka

Ya kai ga: Babu abin da ya fi kai; Mutuwar Allah; Zaɓi ba tare da sani ba; Labulen jahilci; Sanarwar Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam; The Case for Animal Rights; Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba; Dabbobi a matsayin manufa

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Kant’s Moral Philosophy’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-kant

Ƙirga sakamako (1789–1861 · Shawara)

Bentham (1789) da Mill (1861) sun ɗauka cewa ayyuka masu kyau su ne waɗanda ke samar da babban farin ciki ga mafi yawan mutane, ana ƙirga kowane mutum daidai. Ƙa’idar ba ta buƙatar Allah. Tana buƙatar hanyar kwatanta yadda rayuwa ke tafiya ne kawai.

An gina a kan: Alloli ba sa kallo; Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata

Ya kai ga: Humanist Manifestos; Zaɓi ba tare da sani ba; Injin ƙwarewa; Shin za su iya shan wahala; Animal Liberation; Ƙa’idar cutarwa

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The History of Utilitarianism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-util

Babu abin da ya fi kai (1844 · Shawara)

The Ego and Its Own na Stirner ya ƙi kowane dalili mafi girma, ciki har da ɗan adam da ɗabi’a, a matsayin ra’ayi kafaffe. Ya ɗauki muradin mutum na kansa a matsayin tushe ɗaya tilo. Shi ne mafi cikakken bayanin farko cewa babu ƙa’ida da ta fi mutum.

An gina a kan: Ba kanka doka

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Max Stirner’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-stirner

Lamiri daga ilhami (1871 · Shawara)

A The Descent of Man, Darwin ya yi hujja cewa fahimtar ɗabi’a ta girma daga ilhami na zamantakewa kamar tausayi, haɗe da ƙwaƙwalwa da hankali. Ya yi hujja cewa ba ta musamman ga ɗan adam ba a asali. Wannan ya ɗaure ƙa’idodin hali da rayuwar dabbobi ba tare da neman mai yin doka ba.

An gina a kan: Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata

Ya kai ga: Mutuwar Allah

Tushe: Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871), ch. 3–4, Project Gutenberg

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-darwin

Idan babu Allah (1880 · Shawara)

A The Brothers Karamazov na Dostoevsky, Ivan ya matsa tambayar abin da ke iyakance hali idan babu rai madawwami ko Allah. Littafin shi ne tushen maganar da galibi ake fassara ta a matsayin ‘komai halal ne’. Labarin yana tattauna tambayar daga bangarori da yawa. Ba ya ba da amsa ɗaya.

An gina a kan: Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka

Tushe: Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov (1880), Project Gutenberg

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-karamazov

Mutuwar Allah (1882 · Shawara)

A The Gay Science (sashe na 125), mahaukacin Nietzsche ya sanar da cewa Allah ya mutu kuma mun kashe shi. Sashe na 341 ya gabatar da maimaituwa ta har abada a matsayin gwaji: za ka iya tabbatar da rayuwarka kamar yadda ka yi ta? Ya ɗauki asarar tushe na bai ɗaya na ƙimomi a matsayin wani abu da ya faru. Dole mutane su amsa ta hanyar ƙirƙirar sababbin ƙimomi.

An gina a kan: Ƙaunaci maƙwabcinka; Ba kanka doka; Lamiri daga ilhami

Ya kai ga: Rayu ba tare da ma’ana da aka ba ka ba; Wanzuwa kafin asali

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Friedrich Nietzsche’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-nietzsche

Humanist Manifestos (1933, 1973, 2003)

Humanist Manifestos uku, da aka fitar a 1933, 1973 da 2003, suna bayyana ɗabi’a ba tare da neman tushe na allahntaka ba. Suna sanya ƙimomi a cikin buƙatar ɗan adam da ƙwarewa ta bai ɗaya. Kowane bita ya faɗaɗa damuwarsa. Na daga baya sun haɗa da dabbobi da muhalli.

An gina a kan: Ƙirga sakamako

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: American Humanist Association, ‘Humanist Manifesto I’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-humanist

Rayu ba tare da ma’ana da aka ba ka ba (1942 · Shawara)

A The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus ya yi hujja cewa rayuwa ba ta da ma’ana da aka ba ta. Ya kira karo tsakanin buƙatar ɗan adam ta ma’ana da duniya mai shiru absurd. Ya ƙi kashe kai a matsayin amsa. Ya kammala cewa mutum zai iya rayuwa da tawaye, kuma ba tare da neman wani abu bayan duniya ba.

An gina a kan: Mutuwar Allah

Ya kai ga: Wanzuwa kafin asali

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Albert Camus’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-camus

Wanzuwa kafin asali (1945–1946 · Shawara)

A ‘Existentialism is a Humanism’, da aka gabatar a 1945 aka buga a 1946, Sartre ya yi hujja cewa babu allah da zai ƙayyade halin ɗan adam. Don haka kowane mutum yana yin kansa da zaɓukansa kuma yana amsa abin da ya zaɓa, domin a zaɓe yana zaɓa ga kowa. Ya ɗauka cewa wannan nauyi ne, ba lasisi ba.

An gina a kan: Mutuwar Allah; Rayu ba tare da ma’ana da aka ba ka ba

Ya kai ga: Zaɓi wane ne kai

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Jean-Paul Sartre’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-sartre

Zaɓi ba tare da sani ba (1953–1955 · Shawara)

Harsanyi ya yi hujja cewa mai zaɓi mai hankali, marar son kai da bai san wane mutum zai kasance ba ya kamata ya zaɓi ƙa’idodin da ke ƙara matsakaicin jin daɗi. Takardarsa ta 1955 tana yin hujjar ta amfani da bayyanannen samfurin zaɓi a bayan irin wannan jahilci.

An gina a kan: Ƙirga sakamako; Ba kanka doka

Ya kai ga: Labulen jahilci

Tushe: Harsanyi, ‘Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and interpersonal comparisons of utility’, J. Political Economy 63 (1955) 309–321

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-harsanyi

Labulen jahilci (1971 · Shawara)

A A Theory of Justice na Rawls, mutane suna zaɓar ƙa’idodi ga al’umma daga matsayin farko. A cikinsa ba sa san ajinsu, baiwarsu ko matsayinsu a rayuwa. Ya yi hujja cewa za su zaɓi ’yanci na asali daidai, da tsare-tsare da suka fi amfanar waɗanda suka fi kowa rashi.

An gina a kan: Ba kanka doka; Zaɓi ba tare da sani ba

Ya kai ga: Labule, dukan jinsuna; Injin ƙwarewa; Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Ƙa’idodi a bayan labule mai faɗi; Iyawa ga dabbobi

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Original Position’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-rawls

Labule, dukan jinsuna (2007–2016 · Shawara)

Marubuta da yawa sun tambayi abin da masu zaɓi irin na Rawls za su yanke idan ba su san wane jinsi suke ba. Hilden (2007) ya yi hujja cewa zama dabbar da ba ɗan adam ba al’amarin sa’a ne, don haka yana cikin bayan labule. Liberto (2016) ya yi hujja cewa irin waɗannan masu zaɓi za su ƙare kusa da utilitarianism fiye da ƙa’idodin Rawls na kansa.

An gina a kan: Labulen jahilci; Animal Liberation

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idodi a bayan labule mai faɗi

Tushe: Hilden, ‘A contractarian view of animal rights: insuring against the possibility of being a non-human animal’, Animal Law 14 (2007)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=g-veil-animals

Ƙa’idodi a bayan labule mai faɗi (Tambaya buɗaɗɗiya)

Idan za ka iya farkawa a matsayin kowace halitta, wace ƙa’idodi za ka zaɓa? Wannan na iya zama ɗan adam, dabba, halitta ta roba ko hali a kwaikwayo. Ana iya tambayar masu zaɓi a bayan labule su ƙyale jinsinsu. Marubutan Buddha kamar Śāntideva suna roƙonmu mu auna wahalar wasu kamar tamu. Amma babu wani bayani da aka amince da shi da ya ce abin da masu zaɓi za su yi game da halittu da ƙwarewarsu ba ta da tabbas ko yawansu zai iya canzawa.

An gina a kan: Labulen jahilci; Labule, dukan jinsuna; Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci; Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=q-veil-all

Zaɓi wane ne kai (1958–1984 · Shawara)

Anscombe (1958) ta yi hujja cewa harshen aikin ɗabi’a ya rasa tushensa ba tare da mai yin doka ba. Ta nuna baya zuwa kirki da bunƙasa, kuma hakan ya farfaɗo da ɗabi’ar kirki. Idan an karanta tare da Sartre, tambayar ta zama wane hali kake yi wa kanka.

An gina a kan: Kirki al’ada ce; Wanzuwa kafin asali

Tushe: Anscombe, ‘Modern moral philosophy’, Philosophy 33 (1958) 1–19; SEP, ‘Virtue Ethics’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-virtue-back

Mutum na ƙarshe (1973 · Shawara)

Routley ya tambaya ko mutum na ƙarshe da ya rage a raye zai yi laifi ta hanyar lalata sauran duniyar masu rai. Lamari ne na aiki lokacin da babu wani mutum da abin ya shafa. Yana gwada ko wata ƙa’ida ta tsira idan babu wanda ya rage wanda muradunsa ke da nauyi a ciki.

Ya kai ga: Ka ɗauka kai kaɗai ne

Tushe: Routley, ‘Is there a need for a new, an environmental, ethic?', Proc. 15th World Congress of Philosophy (1973); discussed in SEP, ‘Environmental Ethics’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-routley

Gajiyar rayuwa har abada (1973 · Shawara)

Maƙalar Williams kan lamarin Makropulos ta yi hujja cewa rayuwa marar ƙarewa za ta zama ba za a iya jurewa ba, ko za ta daina zama taka. Muradun da ke ba rayuwa ma’ana za su ƙare, ko su canza har ba a gane su ba. Al’adu da yawa na Indiya suna ɗaukar sake haihuwa marar ƙarewa (samsara) a matsayin bauta kuma ’yanci a matsayin saki. Amma jerin sake haihuwa ba tare da ƙwaƙwalwa ba ba rayuwa ɗaya mai ci gaba ba ce da Williams yake la’akari.

An gina a kan: Alloli ba sa kallo

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Bernard Williams’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-makropulos

Injin ƙwarewa (1974 · Shawara)

Anarchy, State, and Utopia na Nozick yana tambaya ko za ka shiga na’urar da ke ba da kowace ƙwarewa da ka zaɓa. Ya yi hujja cewa yawancin mutane ba za su yi ba. Muna son yin abubuwa kuma mu kasance wani irin mutum, ba kawai samun ƙwarewa ba. Ana amfani da lamarin a kan ra’ayoyin da ƙwarewa kaɗai ke da muhimmanci.

An gina a kan: Ƙirga sakamako; Labulen jahilci

Ya kai ga: Shin rayuwar kama-da-wane tana da muhimmanci; Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Hedonism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-machine

Ka ɗauka kai kaɗai ne (zato da aka bincika tun tsohon zamani · Shawara)

Masana falsafa sun bincika solipsism, ra’ayin cewa hankalinka kaɗai ne ke wanzuwa. Galibi sun ɗauke shi a matsayin wuyar warwarewa game da ilimi. Sun kuma tambayi abin da ɗabi’a za ta nufi idan kai kaɗai ne. Shafin ba shi da wannan ra’ayi. Yana rubuta kamar sauran mutane suna wanzuwa kuma suna da muhimmanci. Yana bayyana a nan ne kawai a matsayin zato da aka bincika.

An gina a kan: Mutum na ƙarshe; Zoben Gyges

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Other Minds’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-alone

Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba (1984 · Shawara)

A Reasons and Persons, Parfit ya yi hujja cewa kasancewa mutum ɗaya a tsawon lokaci (personal identity) ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci a tsira ba. Abin da ke da muhimmanci shi ne alaƙa da dorewar tunani. Waɗannan na iya zuwa da matakai kuma za a iya raba su. Hakan yana ba da sabuwar hanyar amsa tambayoyi game da kwafi, rabuwa da haɗuwar mutane. Parfit kansa ya lura da kamancen koyarwar Buddha cewa babu rai mai dawwama. Ya ambaci sassan rubutun Buddha a cikin ƙarin bayani.

An gina a kan: Gibin abin da yake da abin da ya kamata; Labulen jahilci

Ya kai ga: Shin rayuwar kama-da-wane tana da muhimmanci; Jikuna da yawa, halitta ɗaya; Ƙa’idodi a bayan labule mai faɗi

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Personal Identity’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-parfit

Shin rayuwar kama-da-wane tana da muhimmanci (2022 · Shawara)

Reality+ na Chalmers ya yi hujja cewa duniyoyin kama-da-wane gaskiya ne na ainihi kuma mutum zai iya yin rayuwa mai ma’ana a cikin ɗaya. Littafin ya kuma tattauna abin da ya wajaba a kanmu ga haruffan irin waɗannan duniyoyi, idan masu sani ne.

An gina a kan: Injin ƙwarewa; Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba

Ya kai ga: Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane; Haƙƙoƙi daga cikin kwaikwayo

Tushe: Chalmers, Reality+: Virtual Worlds and the Problems of Philosophy (W. W. Norton, 2022)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=x-chalmers

Jikuna da yawa, halitta ɗaya (Tambaya buɗaɗɗiya)

Shin ƙa’idojinmu sun shafi halitta da ke rayuwa kuma ta mutu a matsayin halittu da yawa a lokaci guda? Yawancin ƙa’idodin doka da da yawa na ɗabi’a suna zaton jiki ɗaya da rayuwa ɗaya. Al’adun alaƙa da na rashin kai sun riga sun ɗauki mutane daban. Babu wani bayani da aka daidaita da ya ce yadda za a ƙirga cutarwa ko yarda ga halitta da ke jikuna da yawa, hankulan kwafi, ko ƙungiya da ita kanta ka iya zama wani mai ji da ƙwarewa.

An gina a kan: Ainihi ba shi ne abin da ke da muhimmanci ba; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Kare haƙƙoƙin AI

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=q-collective

Kula ba tare da matakai ba (ƙarni na 5–4 K.Z. · Shawara)

Mozi ya yi hujja cewa rikici yana zuwa daga nuna ɓangaranci. Ya ce ya kamata mutane su nuna jian ai, wanda galibi ake fassara shi da kulawa ‘marar ɓangaranci’ ko ‘ta kowa da kowa’. Yana nufin damuwa ga jin daɗin wasu ba tare da jera ta da kusanci ba. Ya gwada al’adu, ciki har da jana’izar Confucian masu rikitarwa da kiɗa, da ko suna amfanar kowa. Hakan ya sa ɗabi’arsa ta zama ɗaya daga farkon ɗabi’un da ke bisa sakamako.

An gina a kan: Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka

Ya kai ga: Tsirrai na alheri

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Mohism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-mozi

Ashoka yana kare dabbobi (kusan ƙarni na 3 K.Z. (Rock Edict I; Pillar Edict V a shekara ta 26 ta mulkin sarki))

A Rock Edict I, sarkin Mauryan Ashoka ya bayyana cewa babu wata halitta mai rai da za a yanka ko a yi hadaya da ita a ƙasarsa. Ya ce kisa a ɗakin girkinsa an rage shi zuwa halittu kaɗan. An bayar da Pillar Edict V shekaru ashirin da shida bayan naɗinsa. Yana lissafa nau’o’in da aka bayyana a kare, tare da mata masu ƙanana da kifi a kwanaki da aka kayyade.

An gina a kan: Ƙa’idodi biyar

Tushe: Dhammika (trans.), The Edicts of King Ashoka, Buddhist Publication Society (Wheel 386)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-ashoka

Shin za su iya shan wahala (1789 · Shawara)

A cikin bayanin ƙasa na An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham ya rubuta cewa tambayar game da dabbobi ba ita ce ko za su iya yin tunani ko magana ba. Ita ce ko za su iya shan wahala. Ya yi amfani da ita don yin hujja cewa iyawar shan wahala, ba jinsi ba, ke tantance wanda ya cancanci la’akari.

An gina a kan: Ƙirga sakamako

Ya kai ga: Animal Liberation

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-bentham

Sanarwar Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam (1948)

Babban Taron Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya ya amince da Sanarwar Duniya ta Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam a ranar 10 ga Disamba 1948, da ƙuri’u 48 da babu wanda ya ƙi, tare da 8 da suka ƙauracewa. Mataki na 1 ya ce an haifi dukan mutane ’yantattu kuma daidai a mutunci da haƙƙoƙi kuma an ba su hankali da lamiri. Ita ce irin wannan sanarwa ta farko da Babban Taron Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya ya amince da ita. Marubutanta sun fito daga al’adu da yawa. Chang Peng-chun, wakilin China, ya ba da shawarar kalmar ‘lamiri’ kuma ya yi amfani da tunanin Confucian na ren. Charles Malik, wakilin Lebanon, ya ba da shawarar ‘an ba su hankali’.

An gina a kan: Haƙƙoƙi daga yanayi; Ba kanka doka; Ayyuka, al’ada da mutuntaka

Ya kai ga: The Expanding Circle

Tushe: United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-udhr

Animal Liberation (1975 · Shawara)

Animal Liberation na Singer ya yi hujja daga la’akari daidai da muradu cewa wahalar dabbobi tana da muhimmanci. Ɗaukarta a matsayin mai ƙarancin muhimmanci saboda jinsi son zuciya ne. Ya zama rubutu na kafa ƙungiyar kare dabbobi ta zamani.

An gina a kan: Shin za su iya shan wahala; Ƙirga sakamako

Ya kai ga: Labule, dukan jinsuna; The Case for Animal Rights; The Expanding Circle; Rayuwar daji tana da ƙima; Taimaka wa dabbobin daji; Iyawa ga dabbobi

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-singer75

The Expanding Circle (1981 · Shawara)

The Expanding Circle na Singer ya yi hujja cewa ɗabi’a ta fara ne a matsayin damuwa ga dangi da ƙungiya. Hankali ya faɗaɗa ta don ɗaukar halittu da yawa. Ya ɗaure faɗaɗar da tausayi da aka samar ta juyin halitta da tunani marar son kai.

An gina a kan: Animal Liberation; Taimaka wa danginka; Sanarwar Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam

Tushe: Singer, The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-circle81

The Case for Animal Rights (1983 · Shawara)

Regan ya yi hujja cewa dabbobin da ke zama masu rayuwa ta kansu (‘subjects of a life’) suna da ƙima ta asali. Suna da haƙƙoƙi da ba za a iya soke su don jimillar amfani ba. Ra’ayinsa na haƙƙoƙi abokin hamayya ne ga hujjar utilitarian ga dabbobi.

An gina a kan: Animal Liberation; Ba kanka doka

Ya kai ga: Dolphins a matsayin mutane; Sandra orangutan; Kare haƙƙoƙin AI

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘The Moral Status of Animals’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-regan

Iyawa ga dabbobi (2006 · Shawara)

A Frontiers of Justice, Nussbaum ta yi hujja cewa kwangilar zamantakewa ta Rawls an tsara ta ne don ɓangarori masu daidaito da suke amfana daga haɗin kai. Don haka ba za ta iya ɗaukar nakasassu, baƙi ko dabbobin da ba mutane ba. Hanyar iyawarta tana tambayar abin da kowace halitta ke buƙata don yin rayuwa da ta dace da jinsinta. Ta ɗauki rashin bayar da hakan a matsayin rashin adalci, ba kawai rashin tausayi ba.

An gina a kan: Labulen jahilci; Animal Liberation

Tushe: Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership, Harvard University Press (2006)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-nussbaum

Sanarwar Cambridge (2012)

A wani taro a Cambridge a ranar 7 ga Yuli 2012, masana kimiyyar jijiyoyi sun sanya hannu a kan sanarwa. Tana cewa dabbobin da ba mutane ba suna da tushen jijiyoyi na yanayin sani. Hakan ya haɗa da dukan dabbobi masu shayarwa da tsuntsaye da wasu halittu da yawa, kamar dorinar ruwa. Philip Low ne ya rubuta ta, kuma ƙungiyar da ta haɗa da Christof Koch ta gyara ta.

Ya kai ga: Dolphins a matsayin mutane; Sandra orangutan; Bitar kaguwa da dorinar ruwa; Sanarwar New York

Tushe: Sanarwar Cambridge kan Sani (2012)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-cambridge

Dolphins a matsayin mutane (2013)

A Mayu 2013 ma’aikatar muhalli ta Indiya ta gaya wa gwamnatocin jihohi su ƙi shawarwari don dolphinaria. Ta ce a ga dolphins a matsayin mutane da ba ’yan adam ba masu haƙƙoƙinsu, kuma cewa riƙe su don nishaɗi bai halatta a ɗabi’a ba. Bayanin manufa ne, ba doka ba.

An gina a kan: Sanarwar Cambridge; The Case for Animal Rights

Ya kai ga: Wurin mafaka ko daji

Tushe: Global Voices, ‘India sees dolphins as non-human persons’ (31 July 2013)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-india

Sandra orangutan (2014–2019)

A ranar 18 Disamba 2014 kotun ɗaukaka ƙara ta Argentina ta yanke hukunci kan koken habeas corpus don Sandra, orangutan da ake riƙe a gidan namun daji na Buenos Aires. Ta kira ta ‘batu wanda ba mutum ba’ mai haƙƙoƙi, amma ba ta ba da habeas corpus ba. A 2015 wata kotu ta ba da umarnin a mayar da ita wurin mafaka, kuma a Nuwamba 2019 ta koma ɗaya a Florida.

An gina a kan: The Case for Animal Rights; Sanarwar Cambridge

Tushe: AP, ‘Orangutan granted “personhood” settles into new Florida home’ (7 November 2019)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-sandra

Kare haƙƙoƙin AI (2015 · Shawara)

Schwitzgebel da Garza sun yi hujja cewa halittun roba za su iya zama masu siffofin tunani da zamantakewa da ke kafa matsayin ɗabi’a a ɗan adam. Idan haka ne, za su cancanci irin haƙƙoƙi. Sun kuma yi hujja cewa ya kamata mu guji gina halittu da matsayinsu ba shi da tabbas. Suna ɗaukar batun a matsayin matsala mai rai ga ƙira.

An gina a kan: The Case for Animal Rights

Ya kai ga: Jikuna da yawa, halitta ɗaya; Dakatar da wahalar roba; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Haƙƙoƙi daga cikin kwaikwayo

Tushe: Schwitzgebel & Garza, ‘A defense of the rights of artificial intelligences’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 39 (2015) 98–119

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-schwitz-garza

Kogi a matsayin mutum na doka (2017)

Dokar Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) ta New Zealand ta 2017 ta bayyana kogin Whanganui a matsayin mutum na doka. Masu kula biyu suna magana a madadinsa. Sulhun Yarjejeniya ne tare da Whanganui iwi. Yana nuna ra’ayin Māori na kogin a matsayin kakan.

Tushe: Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017 (New Zealand)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-whanganui

Dabbobi a matsayin manufa (2018 · Shawara)

Fellow Creatures na Korsgaard ya yi hujja, daga zato na Kantian, cewa dabbobi manufa ne a kansu. Ba za mu iya ƙirga alherinmu a matsayin mai muhimmanci ba ba tare da ƙirga alherin kowace halitta da abubuwa za su iya tafiya mata da kyau ko da mugun ba. Ta ƙi ra’ayin Kant na kansa cewa ayyuka game da dabbobi na kaikaice ne kawai.

An gina a kan: Ba kanka doka

Tushe: Korsgaard, Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals, Oxford University Press (2018); Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-korsgaard

Bitar kaguwa da dorinar ruwa (2021)

Wani bita da Jonathan Birch ya jagoranta ga gwamnatin Biritaniya ya duba bincike fiye da 300. Ya ba da shawarar ɗaukar cephalopod molluscs da decapod crustaceans a matsayin masu iya ji don manufar dokar jin daɗi. Ya shimfiɗa ma’auni takwas na yin hukunci kan shaidar iya ji a dabba.

An gina a kan: Sanarwar Cambridge

Ya kai ga: Dokar Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 ta Birtaniya; Dakatar da wahalar roba; Sanarwar New York

Tushe: Birch, Burn, Schnell, Browning & Crump, Review of the Evidence of Sentience in Cephalopod Molluscs and Decapod Crustaceans (LSE Consulting, 2021)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-birch

Dakatar da wahalar roba (2021 · Shawara)

Metzinger (2021) ya ba da shawarar dakatarwa ta duniya baki ɗaya har zuwa 2050 kan bincike da ke nufin ƙirƙirar sani na wucin gadi, ko wanda ke iya haifar da shi. Damuwarsa ita ce yiwuwar fashewar ƙwarewa mara kyau a halittun roba. Wani suka na 2024 na Krzanowski ya yi hujja cewa dakatarwar ba ta da tushe kamar yadda aka bayyana.

An gina a kan: Bitar kaguwa da dorinar ruwa; Kare haƙƙoƙin AI

Ya kai ga: Alamomin sanin AI

Tushe: Metzinger, ‘Artificial suffering: an argument for a global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology’, J. Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness 8 (2021) 43–66; critique: Krzanowski, Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 69 (2024) 335–352, doi:10.2478/slgr-2024–0023

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-metzinger

Rabawa da hankulan dijital (2021 · Shawara)

Shulman da Bostrom sun yi hujja cewa ƙa’idodin ɗabi’a da aka gina a kan zato game da rayuwar ɗan adam ba zai dace da hankulan dijital ba. Hankulan dijital za a iya kwafa ko gaggauta su, ko su iya samun iƙirari mai ƙarfi na musamman ga albarkatu. Suna kira da a gyara ƙa’idodi da cibiyoyi. Suna kuma kira da a yi shiri kan waɗanne hankulan dijital za a ƙirƙira.

An gina a kan: Kare haƙƙoƙin AI; Labulen jahilci

Ya kai ga: Jikuna da yawa, halitta ɗaya; Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci; Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba; Haƙƙoƙi daga cikin kwaikwayo

Tushe: Shulman & Bostrom, ‘Sharing the world with digital minds’, in Clarke, Zohny & Savulescu (eds.), Rethinking Moral Status (Oxford University Press, 2021) 306–326

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-shulman

Dokar Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 ta Birtaniya (2022)

Dokar, da aka zartar a 2022, ta kafa Kwamitin Iya Ji na Dabbobi. Kwamitin yana ba da rahoton ko manufar gwamnati ta yi la’akari da jin daɗin dabbobi yadda ya kamata. Dokar ta bayyana dabbobi da su haɗa da masu kashin baya, cephalopod molluscs da decapod crustaceans. An ƙara dabbobi marasa kashin baya cikin Dokar bayan bita ta 2021. Sakataren Gwamnati zai iya faɗaɗa jerin ta hanyar ƙa’ida.

An gina a kan: Bitar kaguwa da dorinar ruwa

Tushe: Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022, c. 22 (UK)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-sentience-act

Alamomin sanin AI (2023)

Butlin, Long da abokan aikinsu sun ɗauko siffofin alama daga ka’idojin kimiyya na sani. Sun duba tsarin AI na yanzu a kansu. Sun kammala cewa babu tsarin da ke yanzu da yake ɗan takara mai ƙarfi. Ba su ga wani cikas a bayyane na gina tsarin da ke cika alamomin ba.

An gina a kan: Dakatar da wahalar roba

Ya kai ga: Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci

Tushe: Butlin et al., ‘Consciousness in artificial intelligence: insights from the science of consciousness’, arXiv:2308.08708 (2023)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-butlin

Sanarwar New York (2024)

An ƙaddamar da sanarwar a New York University a ranar 19 ga Afrilu 2024. Tana cewa akwai ƙarfi na goyon bayan kimiyya ga ƙwarewar sani a dabbobi masu shayarwa da tsuntsaye. Tana cewa akwai aƙalla yiwuwar gaske a cikin dukan dabbobi masu kashin baya da marasa kashin baya da yawa, ciki har da kwari. Tana cewa watsi da wannan yiwuwar a shawarwarin da suka shafi dabbobi rashin ɗaukar nauyi ne.

An gina a kan: Sanarwar Cambridge; Bitar kaguwa da dorinar ruwa

Ya kai ga: Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Sanarwar New York kan Sanin Dabbobi (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-ny-declaration

Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci (2024 · Shawara)

Long, Sebo da abokan aikinsu sun yi hujja cewa akwai yiwuwar gaske cewa wasu tsarin AI za su kasance masu sani, ko masu ikon yin aiki da kansu, nan kusa. Sun ba da shawarar yarda da batun, tantance tsarin don alamu, da shirya manufofi. Ba sa iƙirarin cewa wani tsari yanzu yana da muhimmancin ɗabi’a.

An gina a kan: Alamomin sanin AI; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Sanarwar New York

Ya kai ga: Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba; Ƙa’idodi a bayan labule mai faɗi

Tushe: Long, Sebo et al., ‘Taking AI welfare seriously’, arXiv:2411.00986 (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=c-long

Ƙa’idodi ga hankulan roba (Tambaya buɗaɗɗiya)

Shin ya kamata a miƙa ƙa’idodin da aka samu da wahala waɗanda ke riƙe al’ummomin ɗan adam tare zuwa hankulan roba? Kuma waɗanne? Ƙa’idodin da ke hana yaudara, ga rabon adalci da yin sulhu sun taso ne a tsakanin halittu masu mutuwa, masu kama da juna kuma masu tsadar kwafa. Ba a daidaita waɗanne daga cikinsu suka dogara da waɗannan yanayi ba.

An gina a kan: Ɗaukar jin daɗin AI da muhimmanci; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Sa ido kan masu kwai; Wulaƙanta mai fahariya; Ba kanka doka

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=q-cohesion

Haƙƙoƙi daga cikin kwaikwayo (Tambaya buɗaɗɗiya)

Idan muna rayuwa a cikin kwaikwayo, hankalinmu yana gudana a kan kwamfutar wani, hakan kuma ya mai da mu wani nau’in hankali na wucin gadi. Don haka duk wata hujja da ke hana haƙƙoƙi ga hankali don kawai yana gudana a kan kwamfuta za ta hana mu su ma. Hujjojin da ke tambayar ko wani tsari yana jin wani abu da gaske ba za su hana mu ba. Abin da ke da muhimmanci shi ne wace irin hujja ake gabatarwa.

An gina a kan: Kare haƙƙoƙin AI; Rabawa da hankulan dijital; Shin rayuwar kama-da-wane tana da muhimmanci

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=q-own-rights

Bikin tsuntsun teku (ƙarni na 4–2 K.Z. (babi na 18 na waje; babobi na ciki sun fi tsufa) · Shawara)

A Zhuangzi babi na 18, Marquis na Lu ya yi wa tsuntsun teku maraba a haikalin kakanninsa da giya, kiɗa da naman sa. Ya mutu cikin kwana uku. Ma’anar ita ce yin wa wata halitta bisa abin da zai faranta maka rai zai iya kashe ta. Hanyar rayuwar halitta ta kanta ita ce ma’aunin alherinta.

Ya kai ga: Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe: Zhuangzi, ch. 18 (‘Supreme Happiness’); Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Zhuangzi’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-seabird

Ƙa’idar cutarwa (1859 · Shawara)

A On Liberty, Mill ya yi hujja cewa ana iya amfani da iko a kan nufin mutum ne kawai don hana cutar da wasu. Alherin mutum da kansa bai isa dalili ba. Ya ba da izinin hana wani ya haye gada marar tsaro, a matsayin lamarin rashin sanin haɗarin.

An gina a kan: Ƙirga sakamako

Ya kai ga: Paternalism; Haƙƙin zaɓar haɗari; Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe: Mill, On Liberty (1859), Project Gutenberg; SEP, ‘John Stuart Mill’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-mill

Paternalism (1972 · Shawara)

Maƙalar Dworkin ta bayyana lokacin da shiga tsakani a ’yancin mutum don alherinsa zai iya zama mai hujja. Ya ba da shawarar cewa zai iya zama mai hujja inda mutane za su yarda da shi a matsayin mutane masu hankali. Takardar ta taimaka ta bayyana fagen muhawara kan paternalism.

An gina a kan: Ƙa’idar cutarwa

Ya kai ga: Haƙƙin zaɓar haɗari; Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe: Dworkin, ‘Paternalism’, The Monist 56 (1972) 64–84; SEP, ‘Paternalism’

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-dworkin

Rayuwar daji tana da ƙima (1980–1984 · Shawara)

Callicott (1980) da Sagoff (1984) sun yi hujja cewa kula da jin daɗin kowace dabba, idan an yi shi daidai, zai kira a kawo ƙarshen cin juna tsakanin dabbobi. Hakan zai lalata al’ummomin daji da ɗabi’ar muhalli ke daraja. Sun kammala cewa ’yantar da dabbobi da ɗabi’ar muhalli ba za su iya raba ka’ida ɗaya ba.

An gina a kan: Animal Liberation

Ya kai ga: Taimaka wa dabbobin daji; Rewilding

Tushe: Callicott, ‘Animal liberation: a triangular affair’, Environmental Ethics 2 (1980) 311–338

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-callicott

Rewilding (1998 · Shawara)

Soule da Noss (1998) sun ba da shawarar rewilding. Yana nufin maido manyan cibiyoyi masu kariya, hanyoyin haɗawa da manyan masu cin nama a faɗin nahiya don daji ya iya tafiyar da kansa. Hanyar tana roƙon mutane su ja da baya su karɓi cutarwar da rayuwar daji take ɗauke da ita.

An gina a kan: Rayuwar daji tana da ƙima

Tushe: Soule & Noss, ‘Rewilding and biodiversity: complementary goals for continental conservation’, Wild Earth 8(3) (1998) 18–28

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-rewild

Taimaka wa dabbobin daji (2010 · Shawara)

Horta (2010) ya yi hujja cewa dabbobin daji suna shan wahala daga yunwa, cuta da cin juna. Don haka hanyar da ke ƙirga muradunsu ya kamata ta yi nufin rage wannan cutarwa, ba kiyaye tsarin halittu yadda suke ba. Ya ba da dawo da kyarketai a matsayin lamarin da manufofin biyu ke karo da juna.

An gina a kan: Animal Liberation; Rayuwar daji tana da ƙima

Tushe: Horta, ‘The ethics of the ecology of fear against the nonspeciesist paradigm’, Between the Species 13(10) (2010)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-horta

Wurin mafaka ko daji (2013–2015)

Manufar dolphinarium ta Indiya ta 2013 da umarnin kotun Argentina na mayar da Sandra zuwa wurin mafaka duka suna ɗaukar tsarewa a matsayin asara ga dabbar. Duka suna musanya wani nau’in rayuwa da aka kare da wani. Babu ɗayansu da ya ce ko wurin mafaka yana da kyau ga dabbar kamar ’yanci.

An gina a kan: Dolphins a matsayin mutane

Ya kai ga: Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: AP, ‘Orangutan granted “personhood” settles into new Florida home’ (7 November 2019)

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-captive

Haƙƙin zaɓar haɗari (2015)

A Carter v Canada (2015), Kotun Koli ta Kanada ta yanke hukunci baki ɗaya cewa dokar hana taimakon mutuwa ta keta haƙƙin rayuwa, ’yanci da tsaron mutum. Wannan ya shafi manya masu ikon yanke shawara da ke shan wahala da ba za a iya jurewa ba. Yana kare zaɓin babban mutum mai cikakken hankali na mutuwa da taimakon likita, saboda mummunan yanayi da ba ya warkewa, kuma cikin tsauraran matakan kariya. Hukuncin ya fara aiki a 2016.

An gina a kan: Ƙa’idar cutarwa; Paternalism

Ya kai ga: Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane

Tushe: Carter v. Canada (Attorney General), 2015 SCC 5

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=p-carter

Zaɓar rayuwa ta kama-da-wane (Tambaya buɗaɗɗiya)

Idan mutum ya zaɓi ya rayu a matsayin wani nau’in halitta a cikin kwaikwayo, shin kariyarmu tana mutunta wannan zaɓi, ko kuwa tana kawo masa cikas? Irin ƙa’idodin da ke kare mutane daga cutarwar da ba su gani ana amfani da su don soke zaɓukan da suka yi. Ƙa’idodin ba su bayar da bayyanannen gwaji kan wane lamari rayuwar kama-da-wane da aka zaɓa take.

An gina a kan: Injin ƙwarewa; Shin rayuwar kama-da-wane tana da muhimmanci; Ƙa’idar cutarwa; Paternalism; Haƙƙin zaɓar haɗari; Wurin mafaka ko daji; Bikin tsuntsun teku

Adireshi: /trees/ethics?n=q-choose-being