Bishiyar kwaikwayo · abin da muka koya mu kwaikwaya

Mafarki (kafin a fara rubuta tarihi; ana aunawa tun 1953 · A cikin hankali)

Bayani na farko da aka rubuta game da hankali da ke yin duniya yana cikin Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (4.3.9–10, kusan ƙarni na 7–6 K.Z., tare da faɗin kimar masana na kusan 900–600 K.Z.). A barci, rai yana tattara abu daga dukan duniya yana gina mafarki da hasken kansa. Babu karusai, dawakai ko hanyoyi a can, amma yana yin su wa kansa, “domin shi ne mai yi”. Aserinsky da Kleitman (1953) sun tashi masu barci a lokutan motsin ido mai sauri. Sun sami cikakkun rahotannin mafarki a 20 cikin 27, idan aka kwatanta da 4 cikin 23 lokacin da idanu ke tsaye. Revonsuo (2000) ya yi hujja cewa mafarki kwaikwayon duniya ne da ke atisayen gane barazana. Har yanzu ana jayayya a kan wannan zato.

Tushe: Aserinsky and Kleitman, ‘Regularly occurring periods of eye motility, and concomitant phenomena, during sleep’, Science 118 (1953) 273–274; Revonsuo, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23 (2000) 877–901

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-dreams

Wasan yara na kwaikwayon rayuwa (kafin a fara rubuta tarihi; an bayyana a 1945 · A cikin hankali)

Nazarin Piaget na wasan alama (1945) ya bayyana yara suna ɗaukar abu ko aiki a matsayin wakilin wani, a cikin wurin da aka ƙirƙira. Lillard da abokan aikinsa (2013) sun bitar shaida kan abin da wasan kwaikwayo ke ƙarawa ga ci gaban yara. Sun gano cewa gauraye ce, kuma ba ta isa a nuna cewa yana da muhimmanci ga wata ƙwarewa ɗaya ba.

Ya kai ga: Glass Town

Tushe: Lillard et al., ‘The impact of pretend play on children’s development: a review of the evidence’, Psychological Bulletin 139(1) (2013) 1–34

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-pretend

Wasan ban tausayi na Girka (kusan 534 K.Z. (bisa al’ada) · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A ranar da aka saba ambata ta 534 K.Z., ana cewa Thespis ya ci gasar wasan ban tausayi ta farko a City Dionysia. Ana cewa shi ne ɗan wasan kwaikwayo na farko da ya fito a matsayin wani hali maimakon yin magana da kansa. Gabatar da ƙagaggen labari ga masu kallo, tare da masu wasa suna rayuwa a cikinsa, shi ne nau’in duniyar da aka gina wanda mutane ke gudanarwa.

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Aristotle, Poetics 1449a (tragedy from the dithyramb; Aeschylus adds the second actor); Brill’s New Pauly, ‘Thespis’ (Parian Marble ep. 43 records him as tragedy’s first inventor)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-greek

Glass Town (1826–1831 · A cikin hankali)

A ranar 5 ga Yuni 1826 mahaifinsu ya ba Branwell Brontë sojojin katako goma sha biyu. Yaran Brontë sai suka ƙirƙiri ƙungiyar Glass Town suka rubuta tarihinta daga Disamba 1827. Daga baya suka rabu zuwa duniyoyin da suka fito daga ciki, Angria da Gondal. Masana suna kiran irin waɗannan duniyoyin da aka ƙirƙira masu daɗewa paracosms.

An gina a kan: Wasan yara na kwaikwayon rayuwa

Tushe: Glass Town, Wikipedia (citing Christine Alexander’s edition of the juvenilia)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-bronte

Tarihi na dabam (1836 (littafin labari na farko); Livy kusan 25 K.Z. · A cikin hankali)

Livy (Ab Urbe Condita IX.17–19) ya riga ya tambayi yadda Roma za ta yi idan Alexander the Great ya juya zuwa yamma. Napoléon et la conquête du monde na Louis Geoffroy (1836) shi ne littafin labari na farko da aka gina a kan tarihin da aka canza, tare da Napoleon da ya yi nasara a Rasha a 1812. “P.’s Correspondence” na Nathaniel Hawthorne (1845) ana kiran sa yawanci cikakken tarihi na dabam na farko cikin Turanci. Kowanne yana gudanar da duniya gaba ɗaya a tunanin mai karatu daga wani abu ɗaya da aka canza.

Ya kai ga: The Man in the High Castle; Tarihi na kishiyar gaskiya a matsayin hanya

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘Alternate history’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-althistory

Harsuna kafin duniya (daga 1915 zuwa gaba · A cikin hankali)

J. R. R. Tolkien ya fara harshensa na Elvish na farko da aka ƙirƙira, Qenya, a cikin littafin rubutu a Maris 1915. Ya ce an yi Middle-earth ne galibi don ba wa harsunansa duniyar da za su rayu a cikinta. Ita ce duniyar da aka ƙirƙira ta farko da aka gina daga harshe zuwa waje. An tsara tarihinta, jama’arta da taswirorinta cikin shekaru hamsin.

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin labari

Tushe: Tolkien Gateway, ‘Qenya Lexicon’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-tolkien

Link Trainer (1929–1934 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Edwin Link ya shigar da takardar mallakar ƙirƙira a Afrilu 1929, aka ba shi ita a Satumba 1931. Ta ƙunshi na’urar horo ta iska da ke motsa ɗakin matuƙin jirgi na jabu bisa ga masu sarrafawa, don matuƙa su yi atisayen tashi a ƙasa. Masu saye na farko galibi wuraren shaƙatawa ne. Sojojin Amurka sun sayi shida a 1934. Zuwa ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, 6,271 sun tafi Sojojin Ƙasa da 1,045 zuwa Sojojin Ruwa.

Tushe: Guinness World Records, ‘First flight simulator’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-linktrainer

The Man in the High Castle (Oktoba 1962 · A cikin hankali)

Littafin labarin Philip K. Dick ya yi tunanin Amurka da aka raba tsakanin Jamus da Japan bayan nasarar Axis. Ya ci lambar Hugo ta 1963. Dick ya ambaci Bring the Jubilee na Ward Moore (1953), inda Confederacy ta ci nasara, a matsayin mafarin sa. A cikin littafin, wani littafin da aka haramta ya yi tunanin nasarar Allied. Don haka duniya ɗaya ta kishiyar gaskiya tana ɗauke da wata.

An gina a kan: Tarihi na dabam

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kishiyar gaskiya

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘The Man in the High Castle’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-highcastle

Dungeons and Dragons (1974 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Akwatin Gygax da Arneson, wanda Tactical Studies Rules ya buga a 1974, ana kwatanta shi a matsayin wasan taka-rawa na farko da aka buga. ‘Yan wasa suna magana a matsayin haruffa a duniyar da alƙali ke kula da ita. Ya haɗa wasan yaƙi na tebur da taka rawar hali. Tsarinsa na dungeon da alƙali shi ne tsarin da wasannin kasada na rubutu da na kwamfuta suka bi daga baya.

An gina a kan: Kriegsspiel

Ya kai ga: Colossal Cave Adventure

Tushe: Dungeons & Dragons (1974), Wikipedia

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-dnd

Colossal Cave Adventure (1975–1976 · Kwamfuta)

Will Crowther ya rubuta wasan rubutu a kan DEC PDP-10. Ɗan wasa yana buga umarni yana karanta bayanan ɗakuna da abubuwa na tsarin kogo. Don Woods ya faɗaɗa shi sosai a 1976. Shi ne wasan kasada na farko da aka yi wasa da shi sosai. Ya mayar da duniyar da aka siffanta wuri da mutum ɗaya zai iya bincika shi kaɗai.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Dungeons and Dragons

Ya kai ga: MUD1

Tushe: Raph Koster, ‘A Brief History’ of online worlds

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-colossal

MUD1 (1978–1980 · Kwamfuta)

Roy Trubshaw ya fara MUD a Jami’ar Essex a kan DEC PDP-10 a 1978, kuma Richard Bartle ya haɗu da shi. Ya bar ’yan wasa da yawa su raba duniyar rubutu ɗaya a lokaci guda. An sa masa suna bayan Dungeon, bambancin Zork. Ya sa duniyar da aka gina ta dawwama kuma ta zama ta zamantakewa.

An gina a kan: Colossal Cave Adventure

Ya kai ga: Duniyar labari mai miliyoyi; Second Life

Tushe: Richard Bartle, ‘Early MUD history’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-mud1

Klingon (1985; cibiyar a 1992 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Marc Okrand ya gina Klingon a matsayin harshen aiki don Star Trek. An buga shi a matsayin The Klingon Dictionary a 1985, kuma Lawrence Schoen ya kafa Klingon Language Institute a 1992. Kiyasin masu magana da shi sosai ya kasance ƙanƙani: kusan goma sha biyu a 1996, da 20 zuwa 30 a 2009. Amma harshen yana da nahawu, adabi da wasannin kwaikwayo da aka fassara.

Ya kai ga: Yaron da aka rene da Klingon; Duniyoyin labari

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘Klingon language’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-klingon

Tarihi na kishiyar gaskiya a matsayin hanya (1991–1997 · Shawara · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Plausible Worlds na Geoffrey Hawthorn (1991), Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics na Tetlock da Belkin (1996) da Virtual History wanda Niall Ferguson ya gyara (1997) sun kawo “me zai faru idan” cikin tarihin ilimi da kimiyyar siyasa. Sun ƙara ma’auni kan waɗanne abubuwan da suka gabata da aka canza ne suka yiwu. Altered Pasts na Richard Evans (2014) ya yi hujja cewa irin waɗannan tarihi koyaushe suna ɗauke da imanin marubutansu na yanzu.

An gina a kan: Tarihi na dabam

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kishiyar gaskiya

Tushe: Tetlock and Belkin (eds.), Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics, Princeton University Press (1996)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-cfhistory

Civilization (1991; kwafi miliyan 73 zuwa 2025 · Kwamfuta)

Sid Meier’s Civilization (1991) yana bari ɗan wasa ya gudanar da wayewa daga birni na farko zuwa tafiyar sararin samaniya, don haka kowane wasa tarihi ne da bai taɓa faruwa ba. Lokacin da wasa na bakwai ya fito a Fabrairu 2025, jerin ya sayar da fiye da kwafi miliyan 73. Wannan yana ƙirga kwafin da aka aika wa dillalai, ba lallai ne waɗanda ’yan wasa suka saya ba. Manyan wasannin dabara irin su Hearts of Iron, Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu da aka bar sakamakonsa a buɗe, suna sayarwa a miliyoyi.

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kishiyar gaskiya

Tushe: 2K press release, ‘Sid Meier’s Civilization VII now available worldwide’ (February 2025)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-civ

Yaron da aka rene da Klingon (c. 1996–1999 · Ya tsaya · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Masanin harshe d’Armond Speers ya yi wa ɗansa jariri Alec magana da Klingon kawai na kusan shekaru uku na farko na yaron. Mahaifiyar yaron ta yi Turanci. Speers yana son ganin ko yaro zai ɗauki harshen da aka ƙirƙira a matsayin na asali. Alec ya fahimci wasu kuma ya faɗi wasu kalmomi, amma da wuya ya amsa da shi.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Ya tsaya ne saboda harshe shi kaɗai ba duniya ba ne. Yaron yana da mai magana da Klingon ɗaya, ba yara masu magana ba, kuma ba labarai ko makaranta a cikinsa. Ya fara yin watsi da Klingon yana kusan shekara uku, Speers ya daina, kuma yana ɗan shekara goma sha uku Alec ba ya magana da shi ko kaɗan. Don renon mai magana na asali na harshen da aka ƙirƙira, kana buƙatar dukan al’adar da ke kewaye da yaron.

An gina a kan: Klingon

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin labari

Tushe: HuffPost UK, reporting Wired (1999)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-speers

Rome Reborn (daga 1996 zuwa gaba · Kwamfuta)

Rome Reborn ya fara a 1996 a UCLA ƙarƙashin Bernard Frischer. Yana yin samfurin dukan birnin Roma kamar yadda yake a AD 320. An gama sigar 1.0 a 2007, kuma an sake gina sigar 3.0 (2018) don a iya yawo a cikinta da na’urar kai. Duniya ce da aka sake ginawa. Kowane gini yana kan shaidar kayan tarihi a inda akwai, da kuma hasashe a inda babu.

Ya kai ga: Shaida ko zato: London Charter

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘Rome Reborn’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-rome

Second Life (2003; kololuwa a 2009 · Kwamfuta)

Second Life na Linden Lab (2003) duniya ce da mazauninta suka gina, tare da ƙasa, tattalin arziki da kuɗi. Ta kai kusan mutane 88,200 a kan layi a lokaci guda a farkon 2009. Kusan asusu miliyan 21 an yi musu rajista zuwa ƙarshen 2010. Ita ce duniya babba ta farko da mutane suka ɗauka a matsayin wuri na biyu na zama, ba wasa ba.

An gina a kan: MUD1

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin zamantakewa a na’urorin kai

Tushe: Engadget, ‘Linden Lab says Second Life is huge, shows numbers’ (22 September 2009)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-secondlife

Duniyar labari mai miliyoyi (2004; masu biyan kuɗi miliyan 12 a 2010 · Kwamfuta)

World of Warcraft (2004) ya sa miliyoyin mutane cikin duniya ɗaya da aka ƙirƙira, tare da jinsinta, tarihinta da yaƙe-yaƙenta. Ya fito daga duniyoyin rubutu na MUDs. A Oktoba 2010 Blizzard ya sanar cewa masu biyan kuɗi sun wuce miliyan 12, alkaluman ƙarshe na wasan. ’Yan wasa suna kwashe shekaru a ciki, amma mutanen da ke ciki waɗanda ba ’yan wasa ba an rubuta musu rawa.

An gina a kan: MUD1

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin labari

Tushe: Activision Blizzard press release, 7 October 2010

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-wow

Shaida ko zato: London Charter (2009 (kalmar ‘virtual archaeology’ a 1990) · Shawara · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Paul Reilly ya ƙirƙiri “virtual archaeology” a 1990. London Charter (2009) ya kafa ƙa’ida: dole ne zanen gani ya gaya wa mai kallonsa waɗanne sassa ne ke nuna abin da ya rage, waɗanne gyare-gyare ne bisa shaida, kuma waɗanne zato ne. Shi ne ma’auni na farko na gaskiya a cikin duniyar da aka sake ginawa.

An gina a kan: Rome Reborn

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin da aka sake ginawa

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘Virtual archaeology’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-london

GameNGen (2024 · Kwamfuta)

Valevski da abokan aikinsa sun horar da samfurin diffusion a kan rikodin wakili yana wasa DOOM. Ba tare da injin wasa na yau da kullum ba, yana samar da kowane firam na gaba daga firam na baya da ayyukan ɗan wasa, a kusan firam 20 a daƙiƙa a kan TPU ɗaya. Masu tantancewa mutane sun iya bambance gajerun bidiyo na ainihin wasan da na kwaikwayo kaɗan ne kawai fiye da yin zato kawai.

An gina a kan: Samfuran maye da aka koya

Ya kai ga: Genie 3; Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske

Tushe: Valevski, Leviathan, Arar and Fruchter, ‘Diffusion Models Are Real-Time Game Engines’, arXiv 2408.14837 (2024); ICLR 2025

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-gamengen

Genie 3 (2025 · Kwamfuta)

DeepMind ta sanar da Genie 3 a ranar 5 ga Agusta 2025. Samfurin duniya ne da ke samar da muhallai da za ka iya zagayawa a ciki, a ainihin lokaci, da 720p da firam 24 a kowane daƙiƙa. Duniyoyin sun kasance iri ɗaya galibi na mintuna da yawa, kuma ƙwaƙwalwar ganinsa ta kai kusan minti ɗaya baya. An fitar da shi ne kawai a matsayin samfurin bincike mai iyaka, ga ƙaramar ƙungiyar masana da masu ƙirƙira.

An gina a kan: GameNGen; Samfuran maye da aka koya

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kakanni; Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske; Duniyoyin da aka sake ginawa; Duniyoyin labari

Tushe: Google DeepMind, ‘Genie 3: A new frontier for world models’, 5 August 2025

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-genie3

Duniyoyin zamantakewa a na’urorin kai (Fabrairu 2026 · Kwamfuta)

VRChat ya kafa rikodin mutane 158,192 a kan layi a lokaci guda a wani kide-kide a Fabrairu 2026. Kololuwar ƙarshen mako na yau da kullum kusan 120,000. Roblox ya ba da rahoton masu amfani miliyan 151.5 na yau da kullum a kwata na uku na 2025, galibi a kan fuska, ba na’urorin kai ba. Waɗannan su ne manyan ƙungiyoyin mutane da ke rayuwa wani ɓangare na kowace rana a duniyoyin da aka gina.

An gina a kan: Second Life

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi masu nutsarwa a rayuwar yau da kullum

Tushe: Road to VR, ‘VRChat key stats’ (2026)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=w-vrchat

Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske (2029–2034 · Hasashe)

Gida: Bishiyar fasaha.

Masana harkokin masana’antu sun yi hasashen hotuna na ainihin lokaci da suke kama daidai da hotunan kyamara. A 2024 wani babban mai kera ya ba da lokaci na shekaru 5 zuwa 10. Hasashen 2013 na shekaru goma don wannan matakin ya cika a 2023, ba tare da wani iƙirarin cewa an cim ma shi ba.

An gina a kan: Genie 3; GameNGen

Ya kai ga: Cikakken nutsewar VR

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-photoreal

Cikakken nutsewar VR (2029–2030s · Hasashe)

Gida: Bishiyar fasaha.

Wani mai hasashen gaba guda ɗaya mai suna ne kawai ya buga kwanakin VR a matakin tsarin jijiyoyi. Ya sanya shi daga ƙarshen shekarun 2020 zuwa shekarun 2030, ta amfani da nanobots a kwakwalwa. Ba mu sami wani binciken masana ko hasashe mai zaman kansa na wannan matakin ba. Ba a nuna irin wannan tsarin ba.

An gina a kan: Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske; Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-fulldive

Duniyoyi masu nutsarwa a rayuwar yau da kullum (2026–2040 · Hasashe)

Waɗannan hasashe ne cewa babban kaso na mutane za su kwashe wani ɓangare na kowace rana a cikin duniyoyi masu nutsarwa. Kwanan wata na Gartner ya cika a 2026. Rikodin VRChat kusan mutane 158,000 a lokaci guda, kuma masu amfani da Roblox na yau da kullum kusan miliyan 151, galibi a kan fuska madaidaiciya. Wannan nesa yake da kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na dukan mutane da aka yi hasashe. Binciken ƙwararru 624 na 2022 ya rabu 54 da 46 kan rabin biliyan mutane zuwa 2040.

An gina a kan: Duniyoyin zamantakewa a na’urorin kai

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-immersive

Duniyoyin da aka sake ginawa (undated · Hasashen kai)

Wannan wayewa ce da ta ɓace, tamu ko ta wani jinsi, da aka sake ginawa daga abin da ta bari aka kuma gudanar da ita don ka rayu a ciki. Shaidar ba ta taɓa rufe dukan duniya ba. Don haka kowane sake gini wani ɓangare rikodi ne wani kuma hasashe, kuma wayewar baƙi da ta daɗe da mutuwa za ta zama galibi hasashe. Ƙa’idar London Charter ita ce a gaya wa baƙo wanne ne wanne. Hakan ya zama ɗabi’ar dukan wannan nau’in.

An gina a kan: Shaida ko zato: London Charter; Fuska daga DNA; ‘Dire wolves’ da aka gyara kwayoyin halitta; Genie 3

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-reconstructed

Duniyoyi na kishiyar gaskiya (undated · Hasashen kai)

Wannan shi ne tarihinmu da aka gudanar gaba daga wani abu da aka canza, kamar nasarar Axis ko mamayar Mongol a Turai. Littattafan labari sun yi shi a tunanin mai karatu tun 1836, kuma wasannin dabara sun yi shi a kwafi miliyoyi. Matakin da ake hasashe shi ne gudanar da shi da mutanen da aka kwaikwaya a cikinsa. Hakan ya mayar da gwajin tunani duniya mai mazauna.

An gina a kan: The Man in the High Castle; Tarihi na kishiyar gaskiya a matsayin hanya; Civilization; Al’ummar ɗan adam da aka kwaikwaya

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-counterfactual

Duniyoyin labari (undated · Hasashen kai)

Wannan gaskiya ce da aka yi gaba ɗaya da labari, tare da orcs da elves, ko Klingon na Star Trek. Ana ɗaukar harsunansu, tarihinsu da addinansu a matsayin gaskiya daga ciki. Mutum zai iya haihuwa a can a rene shi a ciki. Ƙagaggen labarinta ma zai iya ƙunsar wani baƙon jinsi da aka yi tunani da ake kira mutane.

An gina a kan: Harsuna kafin duniya; Klingon; Yaron da aka rene da Klingon; Duniyar labari mai miliyoyi; Genie 3

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-invented

Kwaikwayon kakanni (undated · Hasashe)

Bostrom (2003) bai bayar da kwanan wata ba, kuma ya ce hujjar ba ta dogara da ɗaya ba. Ya kiyasta cewa kwaikwayon dukan tarihin hankalin ɗan adam yana ɗaukar ayyuka kusan 10³³ zuwa 10^36. Kwamfuta mai nauyin duniya ɗaya za ta iya samar da hakan cikin ƙasa da daƙiƙa ɗaya na ƙarfinta.

An gina a kan: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya; Genie 3; World3

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-ancestor

Na’urar Antikythera (kusan ƙarni na 2 K.Z. · Samfurin kwatanci)

An tsamo wata na’urar tagulla mai gears daga wani jirgin ruwa da ya nutse kusa da Antikythera. Tana nuna motsin Rana, Wata da taurari, kuma tana hasashen kusufi ta amfani da zagayen Babila. Gears ɗinta na wata sun mayar da wata ka’ida da ake dangantawa da Hipparchos ta zama ƙarfe. Freeth da abokan aikinsa (2021) sun gabatar da samfurin nunin taurarinta na gaba.

Tushe: Freeth et al., ‘Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism’, Nature 444 (2006) 587–591

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-antikythera

Na’urar hasashen ruwa ta Kelvin (1872 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Kelvin ya ƙera wannan na’ura tare da Edward Roberts don British Association, kuma Alexander Lege ya gina ta. Tana tara abubuwan harmonic goma na tidal da inji don zana ruwa a tashar jiragen ruwa. An gina irin waɗannan na’urori fiye da talatin tsakanin shekarun 1870 da 1960. Tsawon kusan shekaru casa’in, na’urar da ke ɗauke da tsarin harmonic na wani tsari ta hasashen makomarsa.

Tushe: Science Museum Group, ‘William Thomson’s Tide Predicting Machine, 1872’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-tide

Hasashen Richardson da hannu (1922 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Lewis Fry Richardson ya lissafa da hannu sauyin yanayi na safiya ɗaya a 1910. Ya yi amfani da lissafin finite-difference na yanayin sama. Ya rubuta cewa zana fom ɗin lissafi da lissafa sabon rarrabawa na ginshiƙai biyu ya ɗauki mafi yawan makonni shida. Ya hango wani zaure mai kusan ’yan lissafi mutane 64,000 suna aiki tare don su cim ma ainihin yanayi. Hoto ne na farko na kwamfuta mai aiki a lokaci guda.

An gina a kan: Numerical integration

Ya kai ga: Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta

Tushe: Lynch, ‘Richardson’s Forecast-factory: the $64,000 Question’, Meteorological Magazine / Weather

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-richardson

Galaxies na kwan fitilun Holmberg (1941 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Holmberg ya yi amfani da fitilun kwan fitila, 37 ga kowace galaxy, tare da photocells don auna haske a madadin nauyi. Dukansu suna raguwa da murabba’in nisa a juye. Ya motsa kwan fitilun mataki-mataki don yin samfurin galaxies guda biyu masu faifai da ke mu’amala. Gwajin ya samar da wutsiyoyin tidal da gadoji, kimanin shekaru talatin kafin kwamfutocin dijital su iya tabbatar da shi.

Tushe: Holmberg’s analog computer (University of Oulu repository); Erik Holmberg, Uppsala University history pages

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-holmberg

Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta (1950 · Kwamfuta)

Charney, Fjortoft da von Neumann sun warware lissafin barotropic vorticity a kan ENIAC. Sun rufe iyakantaccen yanki, a kan tsarin grid na 19 da 16 mai tazarar kusan kilomita 600 tsakanin ɗigo, kuma sun samar da hasashen awa 24 guda huɗu. Kowane hasashe ya ɗauki kusan awa 24 na lissafi, mafi yawansu wajen sarrafa kati da hannu. Don haka na’urar ba ta fi yanayi sauri ba.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Finite differences; Hasashen Richardson da hannu

Ya kai ga: Gudanarwar zagayen Phillips; Hasashen yanayi da aka koya

Tushe: Charney, Fjortoft and von Neumann, ‘Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation’, Tellus 2 (1950) 237–254

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-eniac

Gudanarwar zagayen Phillips (1955–1956 · Kwamfuta)

Phillips ya gudanar da kwaikwayon lissafi na zagayen yanayin sama a kan na’urar Institute for Advanced Study, na kusan wata ɗaya na samfuri. Ya nuna tsarin wata-wata da na lokutan shekara na gaske a cikin troposphere. Ya ci lambar yabo ta farko ta Napier Shaw Memorial. Ana kwatanta shi yawanci a matsayin samfurin yanayi na farko mai nasara.

An gina a kan: Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta; Finite differences

Ya kai ga: Teku da yanayi masu haɗe; Samfurin duniya mai warware gizagizai

Tushe: Phillips, ‘The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment’, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 82 (1956) 123–164; Norman A. Phillips, Wikipedia

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-phillips

Gungun taurari na N-body (1960 · Kwamfuta)

Von Hoerner ya warware motsin nauyi na taurari 4 zuwa 16 a kwamfuta, tare da matakin lokaci da biyun taurari mafi kusa da juna suka ƙayyade. A 1963 ya faɗaɗa shi zuwa 25. Shi ne warwarewar N-body na farko da aka rubuta. Layin da ya fito daga gare shi ya bi ta gungun galaxies zuwa kwaikwayon sararin samaniya.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Numerical integration

Ya kai ga: Millennium Simulation

Tushe: von Hoerner, ‘Die numerische Integration des n-Koerper-Problemes fuer Sternhaufen. I’, Zeitschrift fuer Astrophysik 50 (1960) 184–214

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-vonhoerner

Convection mai hargitsi na Lorenz (1961–1963 · Kwamfuta)

Lorenz ya gudanar da samfurin yanayi mai sauye-sauye goma sha biyu a kan Royal McBee LGP-30. Lokacin da ya sake farawa daga ƙimomin da aka yanke zuwa ƙarancin lambobi a takardar fitarwa, sakamakon ya rabu da gudanarwar farko. A 1963 ya buga samfurin convection wanda mafitarsa ba ta da kwanciyar hankali kuma galibi ba ta maimaituwa. Ya nuna cewa kwaikwayo deterministic zai iya zama ba za a iya hasashe ba bayan wani iyakantaccen lokaci. Hakan yana sanya iyaka kan yadda kowane hasashe zai kai gaba.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Numerical integration

Tushe: Lorenz, ‘Deterministic nonperiodic flow’, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 20 (1963) 130–141

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-lorenz

Teku da yanayi masu haɗe (1969 · Kwamfuta)

Manabe da Bryan a Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory sun haɗa samfurin yanayin sama da samfurin teku. Sun yi amfani da tsiri na teku da nahiya da aka sauƙaƙa, bisa hujjar cewa teku yana motsa zafi kusan kamar yanayin sama. Ana kwatanta shi a matsayin samfurin yanayi na farko mai haɗa teku da yanayin sama.

An gina a kan: Gudanarwar zagayen Phillips; Finite differences

Ya kai ga: Samfurin duniya mai warware gizagizai

Tushe: Manabe and Bryan, ‘Climate Calculations with a Combined Ocean-Atmosphere Model’, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 26 (1969) 786–789

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-manabebryan

Millennium Simulation (2005 · Kwamfuta)

Springel da abokan aikinsa sun bi fiye da ƙwayoyin dark-matter biliyan goma yayin da tsari ke girma a yankin cubic na sararin samaniya. Sun haɗa gudanarwar da samfuran samuwar galaxy da quasar, don kwatanta tsarin da aka kwaikwaya da wanda aka lura da shi mai girma. Ya nuna siffofin baryonic na farkon sararin samaniya suna bayyana, cikin gurɓata, a rarraba galaxy a ƙaramin redshift.

An gina a kan: Gungun taurari na N-body; Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Tushe: Springel et al., ‘Simulating the joint evolution of quasars, galaxies and their large-scale distribution’, Nature 435 (2005) 629–636

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-millennium

Samfurin duniya mai warware gizagizai (2007 · Kwamfuta)

Miura da abokan aikinsa sun kwaikwayi wani abin da ya faru na Madden-Julian oscillation a kan Earth Simulator. Samfurinsu na duniya yana warware gizagizai kai tsaye maimakon kimanta su. Ya maimaita jinkirin ƙaura zuwa gabas na abin. Hanyar ita ce wadda daga baya aka kira samfurin duniya mai warware guguwa.

An gina a kan: Gudanarwar zagayen Phillips; Teku da yanayi masu haɗe

Ya kai ga: Tagwayen Destination Earth; Cikakken tagwayen dijital na Duniya

Tushe: Miura, Satoh, Nasuno, Noda and Oouchi, ‘A Madden-Julian Oscillation Event Realistically Simulated by a Global Cloud-Resolving Model’, Science 318 (2007) 1763–1765

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-miura

Hasashen yanayi da aka koya (2023 · Kwamfuta)

GraphCast hanyar sadarwa ce ta jijiyoyi da aka horar da ita kan bayanan reanalysis. Tana hasashen ɗaruruwan sauye-sauyen yanayi na kwanaki 10 masu zuwa a ƙudurin digiri 0.25, cikin ƙasa da minti ɗaya. Ta fi tsarin deterministic na aiki na Cibiyar Turai daidai a kashi 90 cikin ɗari na maƙasudin tabbatarwa 1,380. Tana maye gurbin haɗa lissafin yanayin sama mataki-mataki da taswirar da aka koya daga yanayi ɗaya zuwa na gaba.

An gina a kan: Samfuran maye da aka koya; Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta

Ya kai ga: Tagwayen Destination Earth

Tushe: Lam et al., ‘Learning skillful medium-range global weather forecasting’, Science 382 (2023) 1416–1421

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-graphcast

Tagwayen Destination Earth (2024 · Kwamfuta)

ECMWF ta gina tagwayen dijital biyu na Destination Earth na farko, kan daidaitawa da sauyin yanayi da matsananciyar yanayi da ke tasowa daga yanayin sama. Mataki na biyu na shirin ya fara a ranar 10 ga Yuni 2024. Shirin ya bayyana manufarsa a matsayin kwafin dijital na tsarin Duniya zuwa 2030.

An gina a kan: Samfurin duniya mai warware gizagizai; Hasashen yanayi da aka koya; Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Cikakken tagwayen dijital na Duniya

Tushe: ECMWF, ‘Destination Earth system launched’, 10 June 2024

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-destine

Cikakken tagwayen dijital na Duniya (2030 (manufar shirin da aka bayyana, ba hasashen wani mai zaman kansa ba) · Hasashe)

Shirin Destination Earth ya bayyana manufar kwafin dijital na tsarin Duniya zuwa 2030. Tagwayensa na farko biyu sun fara aiki a 2024. Wani tushe ɗaya da muka samu bitar samfuran yanayi masu girman kilomita ne. Yana kira ga haɗin kai mai ƙarfi kuma ba ya ba da kwanan wata.

An gina a kan: Tagwayen Destination Earth; Samfurin duniya mai warware gizagizai

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-earthtwin

Atisayen Roma a matsayin gwajin yaƙi (kusan 75 Z.M. · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A The Jewish War, Josephus ya rubuta cewa ana horar da kowane sojan Roma kullum kamar a yaƙi. Ya taƙaita aikin da atisaye waɗanda yaƙe-yaƙe ne marasa jini da yaƙe-yaƙe waɗanda atisaye ne masu jini. Yin atisayen yaƙi da rukunoni da dabaru iri ɗaya da na gaske wani nau’i ne na farko da aka rubuta na kwaikwayon yaƙi.

Tushe: Josephus, The Jewish War 3.5.1 (Whiston translation, sections 3.70–3.75)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-josephus

Chaturanga, wasan runduna (ƙarni na 6–7 Z.M. · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Chaturanga na nufin sassa huɗu na runduna: sojoji masu tafiya a ƙasa, dawakai, giwaye da karusai. An buga shi a Indiya a kan allo mai murabba’i takwas da takwas. Ambaton sunan na farko cikin Sanskrit yana cikin Harshacharita na Bana, wanda aka rubuta a ƙarni na 7. Wasan shi ne kakan chess, kuma ya wuce zuwa Farisa a matsayin chatrang kusan 600 Z.M. Yana taƙaita runduna da yanayin ƙasarta zuwa ‘yan guntaye da ƙa’idoji. Samfuri ne na farko na yaƙi, wanda mutane ke gudanarwa.

Ya kai ga: Wasan yaƙi na chess na Hellwig

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘chess’ (history section); see also Murray, A History of Chess (Oxford, 1913)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-chaturanga

Wasan yaƙi na chess na Hellwig (1780 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A 1780 Johann Hellwig, farfesan lissafi a Collegium Carolinum da ke Braunschweig, ya buga wasan dabara da aka gina a kan chess. Mutum biyu ko fiye sun buga shi a kan allo mai kusan murabba’i 49 da 33, tare da tsaunuka, fadama da ruwa. Manufar ita ce ƙwace sansanin abokin gaba maimakon kama sarki. Shi ne mafi tsufa cikin wasannin yaƙi na Jamus masu tushen chess da suka riga Kriegsspiel na Reisswitz.

An gina a kan: Chaturanga, wasan runduna

Ya kai ga: Kriegsspiel

Tushe: Hellwig, Versuch eines aufs Schachspiel gebaueten taktischen Spiels (Leipzig: Crusius, 1780), as described in Peterson, Playing at the World (Unreason Press, 2012) p. 213

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-hellwig

Kriegsspiel (1812–1824 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A 1811 an nuna wa sarakunan Prussia teburin ƙasa na yashi mai ɗanshi da samfura. An gabatar da shi ga sarki a 1812. A 1824 ƙaramin Reisswitz ya buga ƙa’idodi da suka yi amfani da taswirorin ƙasa suka sa lambobi a kan tasirin yaƙi. Ana kwatanta Kriegsspiel a matsayin tsarin wasan yaƙi na farko da soja ya karɓa a matsayin kayan aiki mai muhimmanci na horo da bincike.

An gina a kan: Wasan yaƙi na chess na Hellwig

Ya kai ga: Dungeons and Dragons

Tushe: Kriegsspiel, Wikipedia; Georg von Reisswitz, Wikipedia

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-kriegs

Tattalin arzikin ruwa na Phillips (1949 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Bill Phillips ya gina MONIAC, kwamfuta ta ruwa irin ta analog. Ruwan da ke gudana ta tankuna da bututu yana wakiltar kwararar kuɗin shiga da kashewa a Biritaniya. Ya nuna ta a London School of Economics a ranar 29 ga Nuwamba 1949. An gina na’urori aƙalla goma sha biyu, kuma ta asali ta yi aiki har 1992.

Ya kai ga: World3

Tushe: Computing History, ‘Professor Bill Phillips unveils MONIAC at the LSE’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-moniac

The People Machine (1959–1960 · Kwamfuta)

Ithiel de Sola Pool ne ya jagoranci Simulmatics, tare da Robert Abelson. Ya raba masu zaɓen Amurka zuwa nau’o’in masu zaɓe 480 da gungun batutuwa 52, aka gina su daga zaɓen ra’ayi na baya. Sannan ya kwaikwayi yadda kowane nau’i zai amsa zaɓin yaƙin neman zaɓe. Ya fara aiki ga Democratic National Committee sannan ga yaƙin neman zaɓen Kennedy. Lepore ta ƙirga rahotanni uku na yaƙin neman zaɓen kuma ta ce tasirinsa ba shi da tabbas.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Samfuran silicon

Tushe: Lepore, ‘Which category have they put you in?' (on Simulmatics), New York Review of Books, 8 October 2020

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-simulmatics

Rarrabuwar Schelling (1969–1971 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A samfurin Schelling, nau’o’i biyu na wakilai suna ƙaura idan ƙasa da wani kaso na maƙwabtansu suna kama da su. Ya nuna cewa tsananin rabuwa a gidaje zai iya fitowa daga sauƙaƙan fifiko kawai. Ya warware shi da hannu da tsabar kuɗi a kan allon dama, don haka kwaikwayo ne da mutane suka gudanar. Daga baya ya zama misalin farko na ma’auni na samfurin wakilai.

Tushe: Schelling, ‘Dynamic Models of Segregation’, Journal of Mathematical Sociology 1 (1971) 143–186

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-schelling

World3 (1971–1972 · Kwamfuta)

Meadows da abokan aikinsa sun gina World3 a kan samfurin World2 na Forrester. Yana haɗa jama’a, noma, masana’antu, albarkatu da gurɓata a matsayin madaukai na amsa. Gudanarwarsa ta ma’auni ta nuna wuce gona da iri sannan rugujewa. An buga shi a matsayin The Limits to Growth a 1972, kuma ya gabatar da kwaikwayon dukan tsarin ɗan adam ga masu karatu na yau da kullum.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Tattalin arzikin ruwa na Phillips

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kakanni

Tushe: World3, Wikipedia; Meadows, Meadows, Randers and Behrens, The Limits to Growth (1972)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-world3

Kwaikwayon sauran hankula (1978–1986 · Shawara · A cikin hankali)

A 1978 Premack da Woodruff sun tambayi ko tsimpanzi yana da ka’idar hankali. A 1986 Gordon da Heal, suna aiki dabam-dabam, sun yi hujja cewa mutane suna hasashen wasu ta hanyar kwaikwayonsu. Suna gudanar da nasu tsarin yanke shawara kan yanayin ɗayan. A kan wannan bayani, fahimtar sauran mutane kwaikwayon tunani ne na su.

An gina a kan: Samfurin Craik a cikin kai

Tushe: Gordon, ‘Folk Psychology as Simulation’, Mind and Language 1 (1986) 158–171; Heal, ‘Replication and Functionalism’ (1986)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-gordon

Kasuwar hannayen jari ta wucin gadi (1994 · Kwamfuta)

Palmer, Arthur, Holland, LeBaron da Tayler sun kwaikwayi kasuwa a hannun jari ɗaya. Shirye-shiryen ’yan kasuwa masu daidaitawa sun riƙe dabaru daban-daban, kuma wani ƙwararre ya sa farashi, don haka farashi ya fito ne daga mu’amalar ’yan kasuwa. Samfurin bai wajaba ya tsaya a daidaito ba. Zai iya nuna kumfa, faɗuwa da yawan ciniki mai ɗorewa.

An gina a kan: Samfuran wakilai

Tushe: Palmer, Arthur, Holland, LeBaron and Tayler, ‘Artificial economic life: a simple model of a stockmarket’, Physica D 75 (1994) 264–274

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-santafe

Sugarscape (1996 · Kwamfuta)

Epstein da Axtell sun sanya wakilai masu bambancin metabolism da gani a kan grid na sukari. Kafa ƙungiyoyi, yaɗuwar al’ada, faɗa da ciniki duk sun taso daga ƙa’idodi masu sauƙi na gida. Littafinsu ya siffanta hanyar a matsayin haɓaka al’umma daga ƙasa zuwa sama.

An gina a kan: Samfuran wakilai

Ya kai ga: Artificial Anasazi

Tushe: Epstein and Axtell, Growing Artificial Societies: Social Science from the Bottom Up, Brookings Institution Press / MIT Press (1996)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-sugarscape

Artificial Anasazi (2002 · Kwamfuta)

Axtell da abokan aikinsa sun yi samfurin Kayenta Anasazi a Long House Valley, tare da wakilai da ke zaɓar inda za su yi noma da zama. Samfurin ya maimaita sauye-sauyen yawan jama’a da canjin tsarin matsuguni na wata al’umma daga kusan 1800 K.Z. zuwa 1300 Z.M. Babban rashin daidaitonsa shi ne cewa kwarin samfurin zai iya ci gaba da ɗaukar mutane da yawa a 1300, lokacin da ainihin jama’a suka bar wurin.

An gina a kan: Sugarscape; Samfuran wakilai

Ya kai ga: Al’ummar ɗan adam da aka kwaikwaya

Tushe: Axtell, Epstein, Dean, Gumerman et al., ‘Population growth and collapse in a multiagent model of the Kayenta Anasazi in Long House Valley’, PNAS 99 (suppl. 3) (2002) 7275–7279

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-anasazi

Samfuran silicon (2022–2023 · Kwamfuta)

Argyle da abokan aikinsa sun ba wa ƙirar harshe tarihin zamantakewa da ƙididdiga na dubban masu amsa bincike na gaske. Game da siyasar Amurka, sun gano cewa abin da take fitarwa zai iya maye gurbin wasu rukunin mutane na musamman. Suna kiran wannan siffa algorithmic fidelity. Sun ba da shawarar waɗannan “samfuran silicon” don bincika zato kafin a yi aiki mai tsada da mutane.

An gina a kan: Samfuran maye da aka koya; The People Machine

Ya kai ga: Al’ummar ɗan adam da aka kwaikwaya

Tushe: Argyle et al., ‘Out of One, Many: Using Language Models to Simulate Human Samples’, Political Analysis (2023), doi 10.1017/pan.2023.2

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-argyle

Wayewar wakilai (Oktoba 2024 · Kwamfuta)

Project Sid na Altera ya gudanar da wakilai na ƙirar harshe daga 10 zuwa fiye da 1,000 tare a cikin Minecraft. Ya ba da rahoton cewa sun ɗauki ayyuka na musamman, sun canza ƙa’idojinsu na gamayya, kuma sun miƙa al’ada. Marubutan sun kira sakamakon na farko-farko. Shi ne mafi girman ƙoƙarin da aka buga na al’ummar mutanen software da ke rayuwa a duniyar wasa.

An gina a kan: Wakilai masu samarwa

Ya kai ga: Mazauna da aka rubuta musu rawa

Tushe: Altera, ‘Project Sid: many-agent simulations toward AI civilization’, arXiv:2411.00114 (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=soc-sid

Al’ummar ɗan adam da aka kwaikwaya (Babu hasashe mai kwanan wata; buri da aka bayyana kawai · Hasashe)

Babbar ƙungiyar da ke gina kwaikwayon wakilai masu samarwa ta bayyana buri na kwaikwayon mutane biliyan takwas. Ba ta ba da lokaci ba. Gudanarwar da aka buga a yanzu ta fi ƙanƙanta nesa: wakilai 25 a takardar 2023 da mutane 1,052 a bin-diddigin 2024.

An gina a kan: Wakilai masu samarwa; Samfuran silicon; Artificial Anasazi

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kishiyar gaskiya

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-society

Samfurin Craik a cikin kai (1943 · Shawara · A cikin hankali)

A The Nature of Explanation, Kenneth Craik ya ba da shawarar cewa halitta tana ɗaukar ƙaramin samfurin duniyar waje da na ayyukanta masu yiwuwa. Hakan yana ba ta damar gwada madadin kafin ta yi aiki. Ya kwatanta wannan da gwada ƙirar jirgin ruwa a kan samfuri a cikin tanki. Hakan ya sa tsarin jijiyoyi ya zama mai kwaikwayo, a ma’anar da wannan bishiyar ke amfani da ita.

Ya kai ga: Sake kunnawa a hippocampus; Tunanin gaba; Kwaikwayon sauran hankula

Tushe: Craik, The Nature of Explanation, Cambridge University Press (1943), p. 61 (as quoted in Williams 2018)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-craik

Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu (1952 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Huxley ya warware lissafin Hodgkin–Huxley na giant axon na squid a kan na’urar lissafi ta inji da ake juyawa da hannu, saboda kwamfutar Cambridge ba ta aiki. Action potential ɗaya mai tafiya ya ɗauki kusan makonni uku. Sakamakon ya dace da siffa da gudun siginar jijiya. Kwaikwayon neuron na gaba an gina shi a kan wannan samfurin.

An gina a kan: Numerical integration; Lissafin differential

Ya kai ga: Samfurin ƙwayar halittar zuciya; Ragar neurons da aka kwaikwaya; Neocortical microcircuit; OpenWorm; Human Brain Project

Tushe: Physiological Society, ‘Hodgkin and Huxley’s modelling of the action potential’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-hh

Ragar neurons da aka kwaikwaya (1954–1956 · Kwamfuta)

Farley da Clark sun kwaikwayi hanyar sadarwa mai tsara kanta a kan kwamfutar dijital a MIT (1954). A 1956 Rochester, Holland, Haibt da Duda sun yi amfani da IBM 704 don kwaikwayon raga ta neurons da gwada ka’idar cell-assembly ta Hebb. Cell assemblies sun kafu daga raga marar tsari, kodayake ba su yi aiki yadda ka’idar ke buƙata ba tukuna.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu

Ya kai ga: Neocortical microcircuit; Human Brain Project

Tushe: Rochester, Holland, Haibt and Duda, ‘Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain, Using a Large Digital Computer’, IRE Transactions on Information Theory 2(3) (1956) 80–93; Farley and Clark, IRE Trans. PGIT-4 (1954) 76–84

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-rochester

ELIZA (1965–1966 · Kwamfuta)

ELIZA ta Weizenbaum ta yi aiki a tsarin raba lokaci na MIT. Ta amsa jumloli da aka rubuta ta hanyar daidaita kalmomin mabuɗi da ƙa’idodin rugujewa, sannan ta sake gina shigarwar da ƙa’idodin haɗawa. Wakili ne da aka rubuta wa rawa na ɓangare ɗaya na tattaunawa, ba tare da samfurin ma’ana ba. Ita ce farkon shirye-shiryen da ke maye gurbin mutum a tattaunawa.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Wakilai masu samarwa

Tushe: Weizenbaum, ‘ELIZA: A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine’, Communications of the ACM 9(1) (1966) 36–45

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-eliza

Sake kunnawa a hippocampus (1994 · A cikin hankali)

Wilson da McNaughton sun yi rikodin ƙungiyoyin hippocampal place cells a beraye. Sel da suka yi harbi tare a wuri ɗaya yayin aiki sun yi haka sau da yawa a barcin da ya biyo baya. Shaida ce da ake ambata sosai cewa kwakwalwa tana sake gudanar da ƙwarewar da ta gabata ba tare da shigarwar waje ba. Kwaikwayon tunani ne na abubuwan da suka riga suka faru.

An gina a kan: Samfurin Craik a cikin kai

Ya kai ga: Tunanin gaba

Tushe: Wilson and McNaughton, ‘Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep’, Science 265(5172) (1994) 676–679

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-replay

Zombies na falsafa (1996 · Shawara · A cikin hankali)

David Chalmers ya gabatar da hujjar zombie a The Conscious Mind (1996). Wata halitta za ta iya zama daidai da mutum ta kowace hanyar jiki da ta ɗabi’a, amma ba ta da wani ji kwata-kwata. Hakan abu ne da za a iya tunaninsa. Idan haka ne, mutumin da aka kwaikwaya zai iya yin kamar ɗayanmu daidai ba tare da kowa a ciki ba.

Ya kai ga: Mutanen inuwa; Mazauna masu sani

Tushe: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Zombies’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-zombie

Mutanen inuwa (2003 · Shawara · A cikin hankali)

Hujjar kwaikwayo ta Bostrom ta kiyasta ayyuka 10³³ zuwa 10³⁶ don gudanar da dukan tarihin ɗan adam cikakke. Ya lura cewa za a iya rage lissafin da ake buƙata ta hanyar kwaikwayon wasu hankula ne kawai cikakke: ‘Sauran bil’adama kuwa za su zama mutane marasa rai (zombies) ko “mutanen inuwa”’. Wannan shi ne bayani na farko cewa duniyar da aka kwaikwaya za ta iya ɗaukar nau’i biyu na mazauna.

An gina a kan: Zombies na falsafa

Ya kai ga: Mazauna da aka rubuta musu rawa

Tushe: Nick Bostrom, ‘Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?’, Philosophical Quarterly 53 (2003)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-shadow

Tunanin gaba (2007 · A cikin hankali)

Schacter da Addis sun ba da shawarar cewa ƙwaƙwalwar abubuwan da suka faru wani ɓangare tana wanzuwa ne don gina abubuwan da aka yi tunani a nan gaba. Tana haɗa guntayen abubuwan da suka gabata cikin sassauci zuwa kwaikwayon makomar da za ta yiwu. A wannan ra’ayi, tuna abubuwa da shiri na yau da kullum wani irin kwaikwayo ne da kwakwalwa ke ginawa.

An gina a kan: Sake kunnawa a hippocampus; Samfurin Craik a cikin kai

Tushe: Schacter and Addis, ‘The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 362 (2007) 773–786

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-episodic

Human Brain Project (2009–2023 · Ya tsaya · Kwamfuta)

A 2009 Markram ya yi alƙawarin kwaikwayon kwakwalwar ɗan adam cikin shekaru goma. Human Brain Project na Turai ya biyo baya. A Yuli 2014 wata wasiƙa a buɗe daga masana kimiyya fiye da 800 ta ƙi hanyar ƙasa-zuwa-sama. Bayan binciken sulhu, aikin ya bar cikakken kwaikwayon kwakwalwa ya mayar da hankali kan kayan aikin lissafi na kimiyyar jijiyoyi. EBRAINS ita ce dandalin da ya gaje shi.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Aikin bai cim ma cikakken kwaikwayon kwakwalwa ba. An sake tsara shi a kan kayan aiki na kimiyyar jijiyoyi.

An gina a kan: Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu; Ragar neurons da aka kwaikwaya

Tushe: Scientific American, ‘Scientists Tried to Re-create an Entire Human Brain in a Computer. What Happened?'

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-hbp

OpenWorm (daga 2011 zuwa gaba · Shawara · Kwamfuta)

OpenWorm haɗin gwiwa ne a buɗe don kwaikwayon nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, wanda tsarin jijiyoyinsa yana da neurons 302. Yana aiki daga neurons da tsokoki zuwa motsin jiki. Sarma da abokan aikinsa (2018) sun bayyana ƙananan ayyukansa da sakamakonsa a matsayin na ɓangare. Babu rahoton da ya bayyana cikakken kwaikwayon tsutsa mai nuna hali.

An gina a kan: Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Sarma et al., ‘OpenWorm: overview and recent advances in integrative biological simulation of Caenorhabditis elegans’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 373 (2018) 20170382

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-openworm

Neocortical microcircuit (2015 · Kwamfuta)

Markram da abokan aikinsa sun sake ginawa da kwaikwayon kusan millimita cubic 0.29 na somatosensory cortex na ɗan bera. Yana da kusan neurons 31,000 da synapses miliyan 37. Kwaikwayon ya maimaita gwaje-gwaje iri-iri ba tare da daidaita sigogi ba. Sake ginin dijital ne mai cikakken bayani na ƙaramin ɓangare na cortex, ba na cikakkiyar kwakwalwa ba.

An gina a kan: Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu; Ragar neurons da aka kwaikwaya

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya

Tushe: Markram et al., ‘Reconstruction and simulation of neocortical microcircuitry’, Cell 163(2) (2015) 456–492

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-markram

Wakilai masu samarwa (2023–2024 · Kwamfuta)

Park da abokan aikinsa sun sanya wakilai 25 na ƙirar harshe a cikin gari irin na Sims. Kowanne yana da ƙwaƙwalwa, tunani da shiri, kuma kowane ɗayan waɗannan sassa ya sa halayen wakilai su zama masu sa gaskatawa. Bin-diddigi na 2024 ya gina wakilai daga tattaunawa ta awa biyu da mutane 1,052. Sun dace da amsoshin bincike na mahalarta kusan kashi 85 cikin ɗari kamar yadda mutanen suka dace da amsoshinsu na kansu bayan makonni biyu. Waɗannan wakilai suna maye gurbin mutane ɗaiɗai, kamar yadda ELIZA ta maye gurbin ɓangare ɗaya na tattaunawa.

An gina a kan: Samfuran maye da aka koya; ELIZA

Ya kai ga: Al’ummar ɗan adam da aka kwaikwaya; Wayewar wakilai

Tushe: Park et al., ‘Generative Agents: Interactive Simulacra of Human Behavior’, UIST 2023; Park et al., ‘Generative Agent Simulations of 1,000 People’, arXiv 2411.10109 (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=min-park

Mazauna da aka rubuta musu rawa (undated · Hasashen kai)

Waɗannan duniyoyi ne da mutanensu ke yin abu da gamsarwa ba tare da kowa a ciki ba. Su ne mutanen inuwa na Bostrom. Suna buƙatar lissafi kaɗan sosai, kuma ba a cutar da kowa. Amma duniyar ta fi kusa da wasan kwaikwayo, kuma baƙo ba zai taɓa tabbata wane nau’i yake magana da shi ba.

An gina a kan: Mutanen inuwa; Wayewar wakilai

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-scripted

Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya (2050–2075 · Gada)

Yana kuma cikin Bishiyar fasaha da Zama na roba.

Taswirar FHI ta 2008 ta yi hukunci cewa kwaikwayon kwakwalwa yana yiwuwa kafin tsakiyar ƙarni, amma sai idan samfuran matakin electrophysiological sun isa. Cikakken bayani mai zurfi zai zo daga baya. Samfurin Monte Carlo na 2014 ya ba da tsakiyar 2064, idan har zai faru. Tsakiyar al’ummar Metaculus kusan 2073.

An gina a kan: Neocortical microcircuit; OpenWorm

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kakanni; Cikakken nutsewar VR; Ɗora hankali a kwamfuta; Mazauna masu sani

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-wbe

Ɗora hankali a kwamfuta (2060s–2100+ · Hasashe)

Yana kuma cikin Zama na roba.

Ɗora hankali shi ne mataki bayan kwaikwayo. Kana duba kwakwalwar wani takamaiman mutum ka gudanar da ita. Masu hasashe suna sanya shi bayan kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya. Kwanakin da aka buga sun fara daga shekarun 2060 zuwa kusan ƙarni daga yanzu, wasu kuma sun ce yana bayan iyakar AI ta kusa.

An gina a kan: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-upload

Mazauna masu sani (undated · Hasashen kai)

Waɗannan duniyoyi ne da mutanensu suke da ƙwarewa ta kansu. Kowannensu yana buƙatar ƙarfin lissafi na cikakken hankali don gudana. Kowannensu yana da muhimmanci a ɗabi’a, kuma duniya mai duhu ta zama wahala ta gaske. Wannan shi ne reshen da duniyoyin da aka kwaikwaya suka zama al’ummai, ba labarai ba.

An gina a kan: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya; Zombies na falsafa

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=p-conscious

Mannequin na haihuwa na Du Coudray (1756 · Samfurin kwatanci)

“Na’urar” Angelique du Coudray samfuri ne mai girman gaske na ƙasan jikin mace, an yi shi da yadi, fata da cika. Madauri sun maye gurbin miƙewar hanyar haihuwa. Ta yi amfani da shi wajen koya wa ungozoma haihuwa ta al’ada, ta kafa, da ta masu rikitarwa. Kwalejin Tiyata ta amince da shi a ranar 1 ga Disamba 1756, aka koyar da shi a duk faɗin Faransa.

Tushe: UCLA Center for the Study of Women, summary of research on eighteenth-century French midwifery

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-coudray

Reaction-diffusion na Turing (1952 · Kwamfuta)

Turing ya nuna cewa sinadarai biyu da ke amsawa kuma suke yaɗuwa za su iya mayar da yanayi iri ɗaya zuwa tabo, ratsi da raƙuman ruwa. Ya yi amfani da kwamfutar Jami’ar Manchester don wasu lambobin. Samfurin kwamfuta ne na yadda siffar halitta ke farawa, kuma ya riga ilimin halittu na kwayoyin girma.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Finite differences

Tushe: Turing, ‘The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 237 (1952) 37–72

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-turing

Juyin halitta a kan na’urar IAS (1953 · Kwamfuta)

A Maris 1953 Nils Barricelli ya cika kwamfutar Institute for Advanced Study da lambobi na bazuwar. Ya bi diddigin “halittu” na lamba waɗanda suka haihu, suka canza kuma suka kafa ƙungiyoyin zaman tare. Yana son gwada ko juyin halitta zai iya faruwa a duniyar wucin gadi. Gwajin kwamfuta na farko da aka rubuta kan juyin halitta ne. Bayanin farko da aka buga labari ne na 1954 cikin Italiyanci.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Atomatan salula

Tushe: George Dyson, ‘An Artificially Created Universe’, Institute for Advanced Study; Barricelli, Acta Biotheoretica 16 (1962) 69–98

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-barricelli

Samfurin ƙwayar halittar zuciya (1960 · Kwamfuta)

Noble ya daidaita lissafin Hodgkin–Huxley don maimaita, a kwamfuta, action da pacemaker potentials na zaren Purkinje na zuciya. Ya nuna cewa samfurin membrane da aka gina don axon na squid za a iya sake daidaita shi ga wata nama. Wannan shi ne matakin farko zuwa samfuran lissafi na zuciya.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu

Tushe: Noble, ‘Cardiac Action and Pacemaker Potentials based on the Hodgkin–Huxley Equations’, Nature 188 (1960) 495–497

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-noble

Life, ana wasa da hannu (ƙarshen shekarun 1960–1970 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

Conway da abokan aikinsa sun gwada ƙa’idodin haihuwa da mutuwa da hannu a kan allon Go. Sun tsaya a kan ƙa’idodin da Martin Gardner ya buga a Scientific American a Oktoba 1970. Daga nan masu karatu suka yi Life da hannu a kan takardar graph, da kuma a kwamfutoci. Hakan ya mayar da atomatan salula abin sha’awa da samfurin girma irin na rai.

An gina a kan: Atomatan salula

Tushe: Conway’s Game of Life, Wikipedia (history section); Gardner, Scientific American, October 1970

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-life

Motsin sunadari (1977 · Kwamfuta)

McCammon, Gelin da Karplus sun kwaikwayi bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, ƙaramin sunadari. Sun warware lissafin motsin zarrarsa a ƙarƙashin ma’aunin makamashi na gwaji. Sun gano cewa cikin sunadarin yana yin halin ruwa, tare da motsin gida da ke yaɗuwa. Hakan ya maye gurbin hoton sunadari mai tauri da aka naɗe.

An gina a kan: Molecular dynamics

Ya kai ga: Samfuran cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta; Tsarin sunadari da aka koya

Tushe: McCammon, Gelin and Karplus, ‘Dynamics of folded proteins’, Nature 267 (1977) 585–590

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-protein

Kwayoyin halittar Neandertal (Mayu 2010 · Kwamfuta)

Green da abokan aikinsa sun buga daftarin kwayoyin halittar Neandertal mai harafin sinadarai (bases) fiye da biliyan 4, daga mutane uku (Science 328, 710–722). Sun gano cewa Neandertals sun haihu tare da kakannin mutanen da ke wajen Afirka. Ya sa wata al’ummar ɗan adam da ta ƙare ta zama abin karantawa daga DNA ɗinta.

Ya kai ga: Fuska daga DNA; ‘Dire wolves’ da aka gyara kwayoyin halitta

Tushe: Green et al., ‘A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome’, Science 328 (2010)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-neandertal

Samfuran cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta (2012–2022 · Kwamfuta)

Karr da abokan aikinsa sun haɗa ƙananan samfura 28 zuwa samfurin Mycoplasma genitalium, bakteriya mai kwayoyin halitta 525. Sun kwatanta hasashensa da ɗabi’un ƙwayoyin halitta da aka lura da su da yawa. Macklin da abokan aikinsa sun gina irin wannan samfurin na E. coli (2020). Thornburg da abokan aikinsa sun gina samfurin kinetic na sarari na JCVI-syn3A, ƙaramar ƙwayar halitta mai kwayoyin halitta 493 (2022). Marubutan sun kira sigar farko rubutun farko, kuma babu wanda ya rufe ƙwayar halitta ta eukaryotic tukuna.

An gina a kan: Motsin sunadari; Numerical integration

Ya kai ga: Samfurin cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta ta ɗan adam

Tushe: Karr et al., ‘A Whole-Cell Computational Model Predicts Phenotype from Genotype’, Cell 150 (2012) 389–401; Macklin et al., Science 369 (2020) eaav3751; Thornburg et al., Cell 185 (2022) 345–360

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-wholecell

Fuska daga DNA (2019 · Kwamfuta)

Gokhman, Carmel da abokan aikinsu sun yi amfani da tsarin DNA methylation don hasashen jikin Denisovans. Rukunin mutane ne da aka sani daga ƙashin yatsa ɗaya da ‘yan haƙora. Ƙungiyar ta zana kai da fuska da babu burbushin da ya nuna (Cell, 2019). Yana sake gina jikin wani jinsi daga kwayoyin halittarsa kawai.

An gina a kan: Kwayoyin halittar Neandertal

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin da aka sake ginawa

Tushe: Gokhman et al., ‘Reconstructing Denisovan anatomy using DNA methylation maps’, Cell (2019)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-denisovan

Tsarin sunadari da aka koya (2020–2021 · Kwamfuta)

AlphaFold hanyar sadarwa ce ta jijiyoyi da aka horar da ita kan sanannun tsare-tsare. A tantancewar CASP14 (2020; Jumper da sauransu, Nature, 2021) ta hasashen tsarin sunadarai kusan daidai da na gwaje-gwaje, a mafi yawan lokuta. Tana hasashen sakamakon da aka naɗe kai tsaye. Ba ta yin kwaikwayon naɗewar ba, don haka samfuri ne na sunadarai, ba kwaikwayonsu ba.

An gina a kan: Samfuran maye da aka koya; Motsin sunadari

Ya kai ga: Samfurin cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta ta ɗan adam

Tushe: Jumper et al., ‘Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold’, Nature 596 (2021) 583–589

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-alphafold

‘Dire wolves’ da aka gyara kwayoyin halitta (an haife shi 2024–2025; an sanar a Afrilu 2025 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Colossal Biosciences ta sanar da kyarketai masu launin toka uku da gyare-gyare kusan 20 a cikin kwayoyin halitta 14, 15 daga ciki bisa DNA na dire wolf. Ta gabatar da su a matsayin dire wolves da aka farfaɗo da su. Ƙungiyar ƙwararrun canid ta IUCN ta ce ba dire wolves ba ne kuma ba mataki ba ne na dawo da su. A matsayin sake ginawa, wani ɓangare shaida ne wani kuma musanya. Matsalar gaskiya ce da London Charter ya tsara wa hotuna, yanzu a cikin dabbobi masu rai.

An gina a kan: Kwayoyin halittar Neandertal

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyin da aka sake ginawa

Tushe: Wikipedia, ‘Colossal Biosciences dire wolf project’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=life-direwolf

Samfurin cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta ta ɗan adam (Babu hasashe mai kwanan wata · Hasashe)

A 2018 Szigeti da abokan aikinsa sun yi hujja cewa samfuran cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta ta ɗan adam suna zama masu yiwuwa. Sun ba da shawarar Human Whole-Cell Modeling Project, amma ba su ba da shekara ba. Sun lura cewa samfurin bakteriya na farko ya ɗauki fiye da shekaru goma na mutum ɗaya a gina shi.

An gina a kan: Samfuran cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta; Tsarin sunadari da aka koya

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-humancell

Sarƙar Hooke da aka rataya (1675 · Samfurin kwatanci)

A 1675 Hooke ya buga anagram da aka warware shi ne kawai bayan mutuwarsa. Ya ce kamar yadda layi mai sassauƙa ke rataya, haka baka mai tauri za ta tsaya idan an juya ta. Don haka sarƙar samfuri da aka rataya tana kwaikwayon baka mai kaya, ta amfani da nauyi da kansa. Gaudi ya yi amfani da samfuran rataye don ƙera ɗakin ƙarƙashin ƙasa na Colonia Guell tsakanin 1888 da 1890.

Tushe: Funicular curve (with Heyman’s scholarship on Hooke’s anagram), Wikipedia

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-hooke

Tankin jan jirgin ruwa na Froude (1871–1872 · Samfurin kwatanci)

William Froude ya jan samfuran jiragen ruwa masu ƙaramin ma’auni ta tanki da Admiralty ta biya. Ya yi amfani da dokokin ma’auni don hasashen juriyar jirgin ruwa cikakken girma. Wani tushe ya sanya gwajin farko, a kan samfurin HMS Greyhound, a ranar 3 ga Maris 1872. Samfurin shi ne kwaikwayon, kuma dokar ma’auni ita ce ƙa’idar karanta shi.

Tushe: Royal Institution of Naval Architects, ‘William Froude: the father of hydrodynamics’

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-froude

Implosion da aka lissafa da hannu (1944 · Mutane ne ke tafiyarwa)

A Maris 1944 Frankel, Nelson da Feynman sun gudanar da lissafin implosion da hannu. Kowane ɗan lissafi mutum ya miƙa sakamakon tsakiya ga na gaba a kan katin fihirisa, yayin da injinan katin da aka huda na IBM ke kan hanyar zuwa Los Alamos. Gwajin ya nuna cewa jerin mutane masu bin ƙa’idodi kayyadaddu za su iya maye gurbin na’ura. Aikin katin da aka huda ya gudanar da hydrodynamics na implosion a babban sikeli.

Tushe: Trinity by the Numbers: The Computing Effort that Made Trinity Possible (arXiv 2103.06211)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-losalamos

Ruwaye masu ƙwallaye masu tauri (1953–1957 · Kwamfuta)

A 1953 MANIAC ya lissafa ma’aunin yanayi (equation of state) na hard disks ta Monte Carlo. A 1957 Alder da Wainwright sun bi ƙwallaye masu tauri cikin lokaci suka sami sauyawa daga ruwa zuwa daskararre. Hanyoyin biyu ba su yarda da juna ba da farko. Wood da Jacobson sun maimaita gudanar da Monte Carlo a 1957 suka sami yarjejeniya mai kyau. Misali ne na farko na kwaikwayo ɗaya da ke tabbatar da wani.

An gina a kan: Hanyar Metropolis

Tushe: Alder and Wainwright, J. Chem. Phys. 27 (1957) 1208; Wood and Jacobson, J. Chem. Phys. 27 (1957) 1207

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-hard

Lattice gauge Monte Carlo (1979–1980 · Kwamfuta)

Creutz ya yi amfani da Monte Carlo irin na Metropolis kan filayen gauge a kan lattice na lokaci-da-sarari. Ya fara da SU(2), sauƙaƙaƙƙiyar ka’idar ƙarfi mai ƙarfi da babu quarks, a cikin wasiƙar Physical Review ta 1979, sannan wata takarda cikakkiya ta 1980. Lissafin halayen hadrons daga cikakken QCD, tare da quarks, ya biyo baya.

An gina a kan: Hanyar Metropolis

Tushe: Creutz, ‘Confinement and the Critical Dimensionality of Space-Time’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43 (1979) 553; ‘Monte Carlo study of quantized SU(2) gauge theory’, Phys. Rev. D 21 (1980) 2308

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-lqcd

Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta Feynman (1981–1982 · Shawara · Kwamfuta)

Feynman ya yi hujja cewa kwamfuta ta gargajiya ba za ta iya kwaikwayon fiziks ta quantum yadda ya kamata ba, saboda aikin da ake buƙata yana ƙaruwa ta hanyar ninkawa (exponentially) tare da girman tsarin. Ya yi zato cewa kwamfutar da aka gina da sassan quantum za ta iya kwaikwayon kowane tsarin jiki. Takardar ita ce inda kwaikwayon quantum ya fara a matsayin fanni.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Hanyar Metropolis

Ya kai ga: Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta zarra masu sanyi; Kwaikwayon sinadarai na quantum

Tushe: Feynman, ‘Simulating Physics with Computers’, International Journal of Theoretical Physics 21 (1982) 467

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-feynman

Ab initio molecular dynamics (1985 · Kwamfuta)

Car da Parrinello sun motsa zarra da ƙarfin da aka lissafa a lokacin aiki daga ka’idar density-functional. Wannan ya kawar da buƙatar samfurin ƙarfin da ke tsakanin zarra da aka daidaita bisa bayanai. Yanzu za a iya kwaikwayon ruwaye, lahani da halayen sinadarai daga makanikan quantum, ba daga abin da aka daidaita da hannu ba.

An gina a kan: Molecular dynamics

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon sinadarai na quantum

Tushe: Car and Parrinello, ‘Unified Approach for Molecular Dynamics and Density-Functional Theory’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 55 (1985) 2471

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-abinitio

Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta zarra masu sanyi (2002 · Samfurin kwatanci)

Greiner da abokan aikinsa sun saka Bose-Einstein condensate a cikin optical lattice. Yayin da suke zurfafa lattice ɗin, sun ga sauyin quantum phase daga superfluid zuwa Mott insulator. Irin wannan tsarin sigar jiki ce ta samfurin ƙwayoyi masu mu’amala, don haka yana lissafi ta hanyar zama wannan samfurin. Aikin da ya biyo baya yana ɗaukar irin waɗannan lattices a matsayin na’urorin kwaikwayon quantum na analog.

An gina a kan: Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta Feynman

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon sinadarai na quantum

Tushe: Greiner, Mandel, Esslinger, Haensch and Bloch, ‘Quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a Mott insulator in a gas of ultracold atoms’, Nature 415 (2002) 39–44

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=mat-qanalog

Kwaikwayon sinadarai na quantum (Babu hasashe mai kwanan wata; kiyasin albarkatu kawai (kusan physical qubits miliyan 4 da ƙasa da kwanaki 4 a kiyasin 2021) · Hasashe)

Aikin da aka buga yana ba da kiyasin albarkatu don kwaikwayon iron-molybdenum cofactor na nitrogenase a kan kwamfutar quantum mai jure kuskure. Ba ya ba da kwanan wata na lokacin da irin wannan na’ura za ta wanzu. Alkaluma ɗaya tilo kiyasin lissafin da ake buƙata ne, kuma sun ragu da matakan girma da dama tsakanin 2016 da 2021.

An gina a kan: Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta Feynman; Ab initio molecular dynamics; Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta zarra masu sanyi

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=f-quantum

Lissafin differential (1684–1687)

Leibniz ya buga calculus a 1684. A 1687 Principia ta Newton ta rubuta motsin jiki a matsayin dokoki da ke haɗa saurin sauyi da ƙarfi. Kowane kwaikwayo mai motsi a kan wannan bishiyar hanya ce ta warware irin waɗannan lissafi lokacin da ba za ka iya warware su a takarda ba.

Ya kai ga: Numerical integration; Na’urar nazarin differential; Finite differences; Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu

Tushe: Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-calculus

Numerical integration (1768–1901)

Euler ya bayar da ƙa’idar mataki-mataki ta motsa lissafin differential gaba a Institutionum calculi integralis (1768–70). Runge (1895) da Kutta (1901) sun sa matakan sun yi daidai har ya isa aiki na gaske. Da hannu ko da na’ura, ta haka kusan kowane kwaikwayo da ke kan bishiyar yake tafiya daga lokaci zuwa na gaba.

An gina a kan: Lissafin differential

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Molecular dynamics; Samfuran cikakkiyar ƙwayar halitta; Hodgkin–Huxley da hannu; Hasashen Richardson da hannu; Convection mai hargitsi na Lorenz; Gungun taurari na N-body

Tushe: Runge, ‘Ueber die numerische Aufloesung von Differentialgleichungen’, Mathematische Annalen 46 (1895) 167–178

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-numint

Finite differences (1928)

Courant, Friedrichs da Lewy sun maye gurbin partial differential equations da lissafi a kan grid. Sun kuma nuna yanayin da matakan ke tsayawa a kai cikin daidaito. Kwaikwayon yanayi, teku, ruwaye da raƙuman ruwa duk sun dogara ne a kan wannan dabara. Richardson ya riga ya yi amfani da ita da hannu a 1922, kafin a san sakamakon daidaiton.

An gina a kan: Lissafin differential

Ya kai ga: Reaction-diffusion na Turing; Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta; Gudanarwar zagayen Phillips; Teku da yanayi masu haɗe

Tushe: Courant, Friedrichs and Lewy, ‘Ueber die partiellen Differenzengleichungen der mathematischen Physik’, Mathematische Annalen 100 (1928) 32–74

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-fd

Na’urar nazarin differential (1931)

Na’urar nazarin differential ta Bush a MIT ta warware lissafin differential da sandunan da ke juyawa da masu haɗa ƙafafu da faifai. Sassanta suna aiki kamar sassan lissafin, don haka na’urar ita ce ke kwaikwayon. An gina kwafi a Biritaniya, Amurka, Kanada, Norway da Japan, ciki har da ɗaya da Hartree ya yi a Manchester.

An gina a kan: Lissafin differential

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Tushe: Bush, ‘The Differential Analyzer: A New Machine for Solving Differential Equations’, Journal of the Franklin Institute 212 (1931) 447–488

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-diffan

Kwamfuta ta lantarki (1945–1946)

Eckert da Mauchly sun gina ENIAC don gaggauta sake lissafin teburin harbin bindigogin atilare. An gama shi zuwa 1946, kuma Britannica ta kira shi kwamfutar lantarki ta farko mai amfani da yawa. Manyan kwaikwayon lissafi na farko, ciki har da yaɗuwar neutron da yanayi, sun gudana a kansa ko a kan na’urori na zamaninsa.

An gina a kan: Numerical integration; Na’urar nazarin differential

Ya kai ga: Hanyar Monte Carlo; Hanyar Metropolis; Molecular dynamics; Atomatan salula; Samfuran wakilai; Hanyoyin sadarwa na jijiyoyi; Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta Feynman; Juyin halitta a kan na’urar IAS; Reaction-diffusion na Turing; Samfurin ƙwayar halittar zuciya; Ragar neurons da aka kwaikwaya; ELIZA; The People Machine; World3; Hasashen yanayi na farko ta kwamfuta; Convection mai hargitsi na Lorenz; Gungun taurari na N-body; Millennium Simulation; Tagwayen Destination Earth; Colossal Cave Adventure

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘John Mauchly’ (ENIAC)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-computer

Hanyar Monte Carlo (1946–1949)

Ulam ya fito da hanyar a 1946 yayin tunanin damar cin solitaire. Von Neumann ya ga a Maris 1947 cewa ta dace da kwamfutar lantarki, kuma Metropolis da Ulam sun buga ta a 1949. Tana musanya lissafin da ba za ka iya yi daidai ba da gwaje-gwaje da yawa na bazuwar. Hakan ya buɗe wa kwaikwayo watsa neutron kuma daga baya statistical mechanics.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Hanyar Metropolis

Tushe: Eckhardt, ‘Stan Ulam, John von Neumann, and the Monte Carlo Method’, Los Alamos Science 15 (1987) 131–141

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-montecarlo

Atomatan salula (1940s–1960s)

A shekarun 1940 Ulam da von Neumann sun ƙirƙiri cellular automata: grids na sel masu sauƙi da ake sabuntawa da ƙa’idodin gida. Von Neumann ya yi amfani da ɗaya don nuna cewa na’ura za ta iya kwafin kanta a ƙa’ida. Ƙa’idodin gida a kan grid sun zama ma’aunin ƙaramin samfurin girma, tsari da tsara kai.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Samfuran wakilai; Juyin halitta a kan na’urar IAS; Life, ana wasa da hannu

Tushe: Berto and Tagliabue, ‘Cellular Automata’, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-ca

Hanyar Metropolis (1953)

Metropolis, Rosenbluths da Tellers sun ɗauki samfurin yanayin daidaito na ƙwayoyi masu mu’amala. Sun karɓa ko ƙin karɓar motsi na bazuwar ta amfani da nauyin Boltzmann, kuma sun gudanar da shi a kan MANIAC don hard disks masu girma biyu. Yanzu hanyar ita ce tushen kwaikwayo a fiziks, ƙididdiga da ilimin halittu.

An gina a kan: Hanyar Monte Carlo; Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Ruwaye masu ƙwallaye masu tauri; Lattice gauge Monte Carlo; Na’urar kwaikwayon quantum ta Feynman

Tushe: Metropolis, Rosenbluth, Rosenbluth, Teller and Teller, ‘Equation of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines’, J. Chem. Phys. 21 (1953) 1087

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-mcmc

Molecular dynamics (1957–1959)

Alder da Wainwright sun yi amfani da kwamfutoci masu sauri na lantarki a Livermore don warware ƙa’idodin motsi na gargajiya na ƙwallaye masu tauri ɗari kaɗan. Sun sami shaidar sauyawa daga ruwa zuwa daskararre. Monte Carlo yana ɗaukar samfurin tsare-tsare ne. Wannan kuwa ya bi diddigin ƙwayoyin a cikin lokaci, wanda ya ba da damar duba kwarara, yaɗuwa da komawa daidai.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Numerical integration

Ya kai ga: Samfuran maye da aka koya; Ab initio molecular dynamics; Motsin sunadari

Tushe: Alder and Wainwright, ‘Phase Transition for a Hard Sphere System’, J. Chem. Phys. 27 (1957) 1208

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-md

Samfuran wakilai (1971–1996)

Samfurin gidaje na Schelling na 1971 ya ba kowane wakili ƙa’ida ta gida ya bar tsari ya fito. Boids na Reynolds (1987) da Sugarscape na Epstein da Axtell (1996) sun yi haka a kwamfuta, da wakilai daban-daban da yawa. Hanyar tana gina gaba ɗaya daga shawarwarin sassanta. Ta haka ne taron jama’a, kasuwanni da al’ummai suka shiga kwaikwayo.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Atomatan salula

Ya kai ga: Kasuwar hannayen jari ta wucin gadi; Sugarscape; Artificial Anasazi

Tushe: Epstein and Axtell, Growing Artificial Societies: Social Science from the Bottom Up, Brookings Institution Press / MIT Press (1996)

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-abm

Hanyoyin sadarwa na jijiyoyi (1986)

Rumelhart, Hinton da Williams sun bayyana backpropagation. Yana daidaita nauyin haɗin gwiwar raga don rage tazarar da ke tsakanin abin da take fitarwa da abin da kake so, kuma yana bari ɓoyayyun sassa su samar da siffofinsu. Hakan ya mayar da ragaggu masu iya kimanta aiki waɗanda za a iya horarwa. Su ne tushen masu kwaikwayon da aka koya waɗanda ke saman kowane rukuni.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Ya kai ga: Samfuran maye da aka koya

Tushe: Rumelhart, Hinton and Williams, ‘Learning representations by back-propagating errors’, Nature 323 (1986) 533–536

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-neural

Samfuran maye da aka koya (2007)

Behler da Parrinello sun horar da hanyar sadarwa ta jijiyoyi kan makamashin density-functional. Daga nan ta bayyana yanayin makamashi na silicon da sauri fiye da lissafin quantum da ta kwaikwaya, da matakan girma da dama. Maye gurbin kwaikwayo mai tsada da kimantawar da aka koya shi ne matakin da daga baya ya kai ga tsarin sunadarai, yanayi da duniyoyi masu mu’amala.

An gina a kan: Hanyoyin sadarwa na jijiyoyi; Molecular dynamics

Ya kai ga: Tsarin sunadari da aka koya; Wakilai masu samarwa; Samfuran silicon; Hasashen yanayi da aka koya; GameNGen; Genie 3

Tushe: Behler and Parrinello, ‘Generalized neural-network representation of high-dimensional potential-energy surfaces’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98 (2007) 146401

Adireshi: /trees/simulations?n=m-learned