Bishiyar fasaha · yadda duniyoyin kama-da-wane suka yiwu

Wuraren zane (aƙalla shekaru 51,200 da suka wuce)

Zanen jan ocher a kogon Leang Karampuang, Sulawesi, yana nuna siffofi masu kama da mutane da alade na daji. Kwanan wata ta uranium-series na calcite da ke samansa ya sa shi aƙalla shekaru 51,200. Shi ne mafi tsohon zane da aka sani mai ba da labari. Don haka mutane suna zanen duniyoyi na tunani ko tunawa tsawon lokaci mai yawa.

Ya kai ga: Linear perspective

Tushe: Oktaviana et al., ‘Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago’, Nature 631 (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=cave-painting

Camera obscura explained (c. 1011–1021)

China ta rubuta a baya cewa haske ta ƙaramin rami yana yin hoto juye. Later Mohist Canon (an tattara tsakanin ƙarshen ƙarni na 4 da tsakiyar ƙarni na 3 BCE) yana bayyana jujjuyawar da haskoki suna tsallaka a ramin. Dream Pool Essays na Shen Kuo (1088) ya sake faɗin hakan, yana kiran jujjuyawar bayan ƙaramin rami ƙa’ida ta al’ada. Ibn al-Haytham ya rubuta Kitāb al-Manāẓir (Book of Optics) a Alkahira a farkon ƙarni na goma sha ɗaya. Ya gwada hoton rami ta gwaji. Ya kuma yi hujja cewa muna gani ta karɓar haske, ba ta aika shi daga ido ba. Optics ɗinsa daga baya ya ciyar da ka’idodin hangen nesa na Renaissance.

Ya kai ga: Linear perspective; Magic lantern; Daukar hoto

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Kitab al-manazir’ (and ‘Ibn al-Haytham’)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=camera-obscura

Wasan kwaikwayon inuwa (ƙarni na 11 (an rubuta shi da tabbaci))

A wasan kwaikwayon inuwa, siffofi masu lebur a bayan allo mai haske suna taka labarai. An rubuta shi a Java ta waƙar ƙarni na 11 Arjunawiwaha (kimanin 1035), wadda ta kwatanta duniya da allon tsana. An rubuta shi a China ta bayanan Northern Song (960–1127). Iƙirarin da suka gabata tatsuniya ne, ko kuma suna ambaton nuni ba tare da bayyana shi ba. Misalai su ne labarin Han na Emperor Wu da rubutun Jaha da Wukajana na kimanin 840–907. Don haka kwanan wata ta farko ba tabbatacciya ba ce.

Tushe: Istari, Wukayana inscription of Balitung (907 CE), Berkala Arkeologi (BRIN); Wikipedia, ‘Wayang’ for the Jaha/Arjunawiwaha dates; Hanshu 97A tale as discussed by Gao Cheng

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=shadow-theatre

Linear perspective (c. 1415–1425)

Filippo Brunelleschi ya nuna hanyar lissafin siffa don zana wuri kamar yadda yake kama daga wuri ɗaya. Alberti ya rubuta hanyar a De pictura (1435). Ƙa’idar ita ce layukan masu daidaici duk suna haɗuwa a wurin ɓacewa. Software na zane na lokaci-na-gaske yana amfani da irin wannan projection a kowane firam.

An gina a kan: Wuraren zane; Camera obscura explained

Ya kai ga: Panorama; Daukar hoto; Stereoscope

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Linear perspective’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=perspective

Magic lantern (c. 1659)

A 1659 Christiaan Huygens ya zana saitin hotunan kwarangwal don a hasko su da fitila mai ruwan tabarau masu zagaye. Wannan shi ne rikodin da ya tsira na farko na na’urar. Ita ce hanya ta farko da aka yi amfani da ita sosai don jefa hoton da aka zana ko aka ɗauka a bango don masu kallo. Fiye da ƙarni biyu ita ce daidaitaccen kayan aiki na nunin hoto ga jama’a.

An gina a kan: Camera obscura explained

Ya kai ga: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko

Tushe: Magic Lantern Society (UK), ‘A brief history of the Magic Lantern’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=magic-lantern

Panorama (1787–1788)

Robert Barker ya sami patent na panorama a 1787 kuma ya nuna na farko, kallon Edinburgh, a 1788. Rotundas na baya sun ɗauki zane-zane zagaye na kusan mita 18 ko fiye. Masu kallo sun tsaya a tsakiyar bakin sararin sama da aka zana, wanda bai yanke ba. Ƙoƙari ne na kasuwanci na farko na musanya kewayen baƙo da wurin da aka gina.

An gina a kan: Linear perspective

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Robert Barker’ and ‘Panorama’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=panorama

Daukar hoto (c. 1826–1827)

Nicéphore Niépce ya yi hoton kyamara mafi tsufa da ya tsira a kusan 1826–27. Heliograph ne a farantin pewter, kallon daga taganarsa a Le Gras, bayan buɗewar sa’o’i da yawa. Ya gyara hoton gani har abada. Don haka a karon farko hoto ya yi kama da duniya ta na’ura, ba ta hannu ba.

An gina a kan: Camera obscura explained; Linear perspective

Ya kai ga: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko

Tushe: Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas, ‘The First Photograph’ (Niépce heliograph)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=photography

Motsi daga hotuna tsayayyu (1832)

Joseph Plateau a Ghent da Simon Stampfer a Vienna kowannensu ya ƙirƙiri phenakistiscope a 1832. Faifai ne mai ramuka na zane-zane a jere. Idan ka juya shi ka duba a madubi, zane-zanen suna kamar suna motsi. Ya nuna cewa ido yana haɗa jerin hotuna masu tsayuwa masu sauri zuwa motsi mai santsi. Wannan ita ce ƙa’idar bayan kowane fim da firam na bidiyo.

Ya kai ga: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Phenakistoscope’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=phenakistiscope

Stereoscope (1838)

A 1838 Charles Wheatstone ya nuna cewa zane-zane biyu daban kaɗan, ɗaya ga kowane ido, suna haɗuwa zuwa hoto ɗaya mai zurfi kamar na gaske. Ya gina stereoscope na madubi don tabbatarwa. Bambancin kallon idanu biyu ya zama abin da za a iya sarrafawa. Kowane kayan kai tun daga lokacin har yanzu yana amfani da shi.

An gina a kan: Linear perspective

Ya kai ga: Fim stereoscopic; Sensorama; The Ultimate Display; Telesphere Mask

Tushe: Wheatstone, ‘Contributions to the physiology of vision, Part I’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 128 (1838), 371–394

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=stereoscope

Sautin stereo (1881)

A Paris International Exposition of Electricity na 1881, tsarin Clément Ader ya aika nunin kai tsaye daga Opera ta layukan waya zuwa baƙi. Ya yi amfani da masu aikawa da masu karɓa guda biyu-biyu, wanda ya ba da tasirin kunne biyu, na sarari. Hidimar biyan kuɗi ta biyo baya a 1890. Alamar farko ce cewa za a iya aika jin wuri ta wutar lantarki zuwa mai saurare nesa.

Ya kai ga: Sensorama

Tushe: Bob’s Old Phones / Telephone Collecting, ‘Clément Ader’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=theatrophone

Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko (1895)

A 28 December 1895 ’yan’uwan Lumière sun nuna Cinématographe ga taron masu biya a Grand Café a Paris. Kyamara ce, firinta da projector a ɗaya. Nuna fim ga masu kallo da aka raba ya mayar da motsin da aka yi rikodi abin da mutane suke ji tare. Wannan shi ne samfurin allunan da ɗakuna da aka raba na baya.

An gina a kan: Daukar hoto; Motsi daga hotuna tsayayyu; Magic lantern

Ya kai ga: Fim stereoscopic; Sensorama; Aspen Movie Map; Telesphere Mask

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Cinématographe’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=cinema

Fim stereoscopic (1922; bunƙasa 1952–54; farfaɗowa 2009 · Ya tsaya)

Fim na stereoscopic ya ɗauki ra’ayin Wheatstone ya sanya shi a fim. An nuna fina-finan anaglyph a farkon 1920s. Tsarin Natural Vision na polarised ya fara bunƙasar 1952 da Bwana Devil. Masu kallo sun rasa sha’awa cikin kusan shekara ɗaya. Tsarin ya dawo tare da silima ta dijital a 2009.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Ya tsaya domin hoton ya kasance tabbatacce. Kowane mai kallo ya ga ra’ayoyi biyu iri ɗaya komai inda ya duba. Gilashi da daidaita projector sun kasance masu damuwa. Kuma hoton ba shi da hanyar amsa wa mai kallo.

An gina a kan: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko; Stereoscope

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘3-D’ (film process) and ‘Natural Vision’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=3d-film

Na’urar kwaikwayon tashi (1929)

Edwin Link ya gina ɗakin matuƙin jirgi da matsin iska ke tuƙawa. Yana yin pitch, roll da yaw yayin da matuƙin yake motsa na’urorin sarrafawa, don masu horo su yi aikin tashi na kayan aiki a ƙasa. Ƙasashen Ƙawance sun yi amfani da Blue Box na Link a Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, kuma ana ba da rahoton cewa matuƙa fiye da 500,000 sun horu a irin waɗannan na’urori. Ya nuna cewa ainihin jin tashi mai gamsarwa zai iya maye gurbin jirgin gaske wajen horo.

Tushe: ASME Landmark #210, ‘Link C-3 Flight Trainer’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=link-trainer

Cochlear implant (1957; tashoshi da yawa 1977–84)

Djourno da Eyries a Paris sun ba da rahoto a 1957 cewa sun motsa jijiyar ji ta wani kurma da wutar lantarki. House da Doyle sun dasa na’ura mai tasha ɗaya a 1961. An dasa na’urori masu tashoshi da yawa (Hochmair, Clark) a 1977–78 kuma FDA ta amince da su ga manya a tsakiyar 1980s. Sauti yana kaiwa kwakwalwa ba tare da kunne mai aiki ba. Shi ne lamarin asibiti na farko na ji da aka samar ta motsa tsarin jijiyoyi kai tsaye da wutar lantarki.

Ya kai ga: Brain-computer interface

Tushe: Lasker Foundation, ‘Modern cochlear implant’ (2013 Clinical Medical Research Award)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=cochlear

Telesphere Mask (1960)

Morton Heilig ya sami patent na mai kallo da ake sawa a kai da ya ba kowane ido hotonsa, tare da sautin stereo. Hakan ya kasance shekaru kafin kowace kwamfuta ta tuƙa irin wannan nuni. Ya kunna fim da aka riga aka yi rikodi kuma bai bi kai ba.

An gina a kan: Stereoscope; Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko

Ya kai ga: Head-mounted display

Tushe: Heilig, US Patent 2,955,156, “Stereoscopic-television apparatus for individual use” (1960)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=telesphere

Sensorama (1962 (patent; samfurin farko 1957–62) · Ya tsaya)

Sensorama Simulator na Morton Heilig (US patent 3,050,870, an shigar 1961, an ba da 1962) rumfar arcade ne. Ya kunna fim stereoscopic mai launi da aka riga aka ɗauka tare da sautin stereo, girgiza, iska da ƙamshi. Shi ne ƙoƙari na farko na haɗa hankulan ji da yawa a lokaci ɗaya a na’ura ɗaya. Shi ne wurin farawa na yau da kullum na tarihin virtual reality.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Ya tsaya domin komai an riga an yi rikodinsa a fim. Babu kwamfuta da ta yi ko ta canza wurin, don haka mai kallo zai iya duba amma bai taɓa canza komai ba.

An gina a kan: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko; Stereoscope; Sautin stereo

Tushe: US Patent 3,050,870, M. L. Heilig, ‘Sensorama Simulator’ (filed 10 Jan 1961, granted 28 Aug 1962)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=sensorama

Wasannin bidiyo na farko (1958; 1962)

Tennis for Two na William Higinbotham (October 1958, Brookhaven) ya zana hanyar ƙwallo a oscilloscope ƙarƙashin sarrafa kwamfuta ta analog. Spacewar! (1962) wasan yaƙin sararin samaniya ne na ’yan wasa biyu da aka rubuta don kwamfuta ta dijital ta PDP-1 ta MIT. Tare sun nuna cewa na’ura za ta iya ɗaukar ƙaramar duniya da aka raba mai dokokin da ’yan wasa suke aiki a ciki.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Ya kai ga: Wasan bidiyo na arcade

Tushe: Computer History Museum, ‘Spacewar!' (see also CHM timeline 1958 for Tennis for Two)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=tennis-for-two

Zane mai mu’amala (1963)

Takardar digirin Ivan Sutherland a MIT (1963) ta bayyana Sketchpad. Ya yi aiki a TX-2 kuma ya bar mai amfani ya zana ya gyara zane-zanen layi da light pen, tare da ƙuntatawa da zane-zanen masters da za a sake amfani da su. Ya mayar da nuni mai mu’amala hanyar aiki a kan samfurin da ke cikin kwamfuta.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Ya kai ga: The Ultimate Display; Duniyar sadarwa ta mutum na farko; Shading na gaskiya

Tushe: I. E. Sutherland, ‘Sketchpad: a man-machine graphical communication system’, MIT PhD thesis (1963), University of Cambridge reprint, TR-574

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=sketchpad

Simulacron-3 (1964 · Shawara)

Littafin labarin Daniel F. Galouye Simulacron-3 (1964; taken Birtaniya Counterfeit World) ya bayyana birni da aka kwaikwaya a kwamfuta. Mutanensa ba su san su shirye-shirye ba ne. Yana ɗaya daga cikin littattafan labari na farko game da duniya da ake gudanarwa a cikin kwamfuta. Hakanan ana ambatonsa akai-akai a rubuce-rubuce kan hujjar kwaikwayo.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Tushe: The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, ‘Galouye, Daniel F.'

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=simulacron

The Ultimate Display (1965 · Shawara)

A takardarsa ta 1965 zuwa IFIP Congress, Sutherland ya ba da shawarar nuni da kwamfuta ke tuƙawa mai cika har ya iya sarrafa abu a ɗaki. Ya rubuta cewa kujera da aka nuna a can za ta yi kyau har a iya zama a kanta. Ya saita manufar virtual reality a matsayin duniya da ba za ka iya bambanta ta da gaskiya ba ta kowace hanya.

An gina a kan: Zane mai mu’amala; Stereoscope

Ya kai ga: Head-mounted display

Tushe: I. E. Sutherland, ‘The Ultimate Display’, Proc. IFIP Congress 1965, vol. 2, pp. 506–508 (scan)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=ultimate

Head-mounted display (1968)

A 1968 Sutherland da Bob Sproull sun gina head-mounted display. Ya nuna wa mai amfani zane 3D mai sauƙi na wireframe, wanda kwamfuta ta sake zana yayin da kan mai amfani yake motsawa. An rataye na’urorin gani daga rufi (‘Sword of Damocles’). Shi ne tsarin farko da ya haɗa allon da ake sawa a kai, hotunan da kwamfuta ta samar da bin motsin kai.

An gina a kan: The Ultimate Display; Telesphere Mask

Ya kai ga: Data glove; “virtual reality”; CAVE; Virtual Boy; Kayan kai na VR na zamani

Tushe: I. E. Sutherland, ‘A head-mounted three dimensional display’, AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference (1968)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=damocles

Shading na gaskiya (1971–1980)

Henri Gouraud (1971) da Bui Tuong Phong (1973–75) sun ƙirƙiri shading mai santsi da samfurin haske ga saman polygon. Turner Whitted (1980) ya nuna recursive ray tracing tare da haskakawa da karyewar haske. Kowane mataki ya kusantar da hotunan kwamfuta ga yadda haske yake aiki. Dabarun sun zama tushen nunawar fim da wasa.

An gina a kan: Zane mai mu’amala

Ya kai ga: CAVE; Duniyoyin 3D na lokaci-na-gaske

Tushe: Gouraud, ‘Continuous shading of curved surfaces’, IEEE Trans. Computers C-20 (1971); also Phong, CACM 18 (1975), and Whitted, CACM 23 (1980)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=shading

Wasan bidiyo na arcade (1972)

Allan Alcorn ne ya ƙera Pong na Atari daga ra’ayin Nolan Bushnell. An fara sanya shi a mashaya a Sunnyvale a ƙarshen 1972 kuma an sayar da shi da yawa. An gina shi daga chips na logic, ba microprocessor ba. Ya mayar da wasan bidiyo abin nishaɗi na jama’a na kasuwanci. Hakanan ya ba da kuɗin masana’antar da daga baya ta tuƙa kayan zane.

An gina a kan: Wasannin bidiyo na farko; Integrated circuit

Ya kai ga: Cyberspace

Tushe: The Strong National Museum of Play, ‘Pong’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=pong

Duniyar sadarwa ta mutum na farko (1973–74)

Steve Colley, Greg Thompson da Howard Palmer ne suka rubuta Maze a NASA Ames a 1973 a kwamfutoci Imlac PDS-1. Ya nuna kallon hanyoyi daga matsayin ɗan wasa da kansa. Ya fara da injuna biyu da aka haɗa, sai aka ƙara harbi da bots. Wuri ne na 3D na farko da aka raba na mutum na farko. Mai yiwuwa kakan harbin mutum na farko ta hanyar sadarwa ne.

An gina a kan: Hanyar sadarwa ta fakiti; Zane mai mu’amala

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: DigiBarn Computer Museum, Steve Colley, ‘Maze War’ history

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=maze-war

Colossal Cave Adventure (1975–76)

Will Crowther ya rubuta wannan wasan rubutu a 1975, kuma Don Woods ya faɗaɗa shi a 1976. Ɗan wasa ya bincika kogo da aka bayyana a rubutu ta rubuta umarni. Ya kafa duniyar da za a iya bincika, mai doka da aka bayyana a rubutu. An gina duniyoyin masu amfani da yawa na farko a kansa.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Ya kai ga: Duniyar rubutu da aka raba

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Adventure”

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=adventure

Duniyar rubutu da aka raba (1978–1980)

Roy Trubshaw ya fara MUD a University of Essex a kaka 1978, kuma Richard Bartle ya shiga aikin. Da zarar Essex ta haɗu da ARPANET a bazara 1980, baƙi sun iya haɗuwa. Duniya ce mai ɗorewa ta masu amfani da yawa ta ɗakuna da abubuwa da mutane da yawa suka mamaye a lokaci ɗaya. Ya saita tsarin duniyoyin kan layi na baya.

An gina a kan: Hanyar sadarwa ta fakiti; Colossal Cave Adventure

Ya kai ga: Duniyar kan layi mai zane; Duniyoyi na kan layi masu dorewa

Tushe: Richard Bartle, ‘Early MUD history’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=mud

Aspen Movie Map (1978–79)

Architecture Machine Group na MIT ya ɗauki fim ɗin Aspen titi-titi a 1978–79. Mai amfani zai iya tuƙi ta cikin fim ɗin da aka adana a tsarin laserdisc mai allon taɓawa, yana juya hagu, dama ko tsayawa yadda ya so. Hoton farko ne mai mu’amala kuma mai kewayawa na wuri na gaske. Ya riga taswirar matakin titi.

An gina a kan: Hotuna masu motsi da aka hasko; Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Tushe: MIT Media Lab, ‘The Aspen Movie Map beat Google Street View by 34 years’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=aspen

Cyberspace (1982–84 · Shawara)

William Gibson ya ƙirƙiri kalmar ‘cyberspace’ a labarin ‘Burning Chrome’ (Omni, July 1982). Ya mayar da ita sananniya a littafin Neuromancer (1984), a matsayin wurin bayanai na zane da aka raba da za ka iya yawo a ciki. Ya ba da suna da hoto ga ra’ayin duniyar kan layi, kuma injiniyoyi sun ambace shi daga baya.

An gina a kan: Wasan bidiyo na arcade

Ya kai ga: Metaverse

Tushe: The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, ‘Cyberspace’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=cyberspace

Data glove; “virtual reality” (1985–1987)

Jaron Lanier ya kafa VPL Research a 1985. DataGlove (1987) da kayan kai na EyePhone su ne samfuran VR na kasuwanci na farko. Britannica ta ba Lanier daraja da ƙirƙirar kalmar ‘virtual reality’ a 1987. Kamfanin ya sa shigarwar bin jiki da allon kai su isa ga mutane a wajen dakunan gwaje-gwaje na soja da jami’o’i.

An gina a kan: Head-mounted display

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Jaron Lanier’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=vpl

Duniyar kan layi mai zane (1986–88)

Chip Morningstar da Randy Farmer ne suka gina Habitat a Lucasfilm Games don Commodore 64, ta hidimar Quantum Link. Ya yi aiki a matsayin gwaji a 1986. Masu amfani sun bayyana a matsayin siffofin zane-zane da ake kira avatars a cikin duniya mai zane da aka raba. Ya gwada a babban sikeli abin da yake faruwa idan dubban mutane suna rayuwa a wurin kama-da-wane da aka ƙera. Masu ginin sun buga darussan.

An gina a kan: Duniyar rubutu da aka raba

Ya kai ga: Metaverse; Duniyoyi na kan layi masu dorewa

Tushe: Morningstar and Farmer, ‘The Lessons of Lucasfilm’s Habitat’ (1990)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=habitat

CAVE (1992)

Cruz-Neira, Sandin, DeFanti da abokan aiki a University of Illinois at Chicago ne suka bayyana CAVE a 1992. Ya hasko hotunan stereo a bango da ƙasan ɗaki. Mutane da yawa za su iya tsayawa a ciki a wurin kama-da-wane da aka raba suna sanye da gilashi masu sauƙi. Ya nuna madadin nutsewa ga allon da ake sawa a kai.

An gina a kan: Head-mounted display; Shading na gaskiya

Tushe: Cruz-Neira, Sandin and DeFanti et al., ‘The CAVE: audio visual experience automatic virtual environment’, CACM 35(6) (1992)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=cave

Metaverse (1992 · Shawara)

Littafin labarin Neal Stephenson Snow Crash (1992) ya ƙirƙiri kalmar ‘metaverse’. Tana nufin duniyar 3D ta kan layi da aka raba inda mutane suke bayyana a matsayin avatars. Kamfanonin fasaha sun farfaɗo da kalmar shekaru da yawa daga baya a matsayin sunan mataki na gaba na duniyoyin kan layi.

An gina a kan: Cyberspace; Duniyar kan layi mai zane

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Snow Crash’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=metaverse

Duniyoyin 3D na lokaci-na-gaske (1993–1996)

Doom na Id Software (December 1993) ya sanya ’yan wasa a hanyar sadarwa a matakan mutum na farko masu texture a PCs na yau da kullum. Quake (1996) ya zana 3D na polygon na gaske tare da haske na lokaci-na-gaske. 3D mai sauri na mutum na farko a kayan masu amfani ya ƙirƙiri kasuwar da dabarun duniyoyin kama-da-wane na baya.

An gina a kan: Shading na gaskiya; Microprocessor

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kan layi masu dorewa

Tushe: The Strong National Museum of Play, ‘Quake’ (with Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Doom’)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=doom

Virtual Boy (1995–96 · Ya tsaya)

Virtual Boy na Nintendo (Japan July 1995, Arewacin Amurka August 1995) na’urar wasa ce ta stereoscopic da ake sanyawa a tebur. Ya nuna hotuna ja, irin wireframe. An cire shi cikin shekara. Iwata na Nintendo da kansa daga baya ya kira shi gazawar kasuwanci.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Ya tsaya domin a 1995 babu ƙaramin allo mai cikakken launi mai araha kuma babu bin kai. Hoton ja mai launi ɗaya, matsayin kallo tabbatacce da dacewa mara kyau sun gajiyar da masu amfani da sauri.

An gina a kan: Head-mounted display; Integrated circuit

Tushe: Iwata Asks, ‘Shigeru Miyamoto talks Virtual Boy’, Nintendo

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=virtualboy

Duniyoyi na kan layi masu dorewa (1997–2003)

Ultima Online (1997), EverQuest (1999) da Second Life (2003) sun sanya adadi mai yawa na mutane a cikin duniyoyin zane masu ɗorewa. Duniyoyin sun ci gaba lokacin da kowane ɗan wasa ya fita. Suna da tattalin arziki da tsarin zamantakewa nasu. Su ne mafi kyawun shaidar da muke da ita ta yadda mutane suke yin hali a wuraren kama-da-wane masu tsawon rai.

An gina a kan: Duniyar kan layi mai zane; Duniyar rubutu da aka raba; Duniyoyin 3D na lokaci-na-gaske; World Wide Web

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Ultima Online’ and ‘Online gaming’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=mmo

Brain-computer interface (2004–2006)

A 2006 Hochberg da abokan aiki sun ba da rahoto kan mutum da ya shanye daga wuya zuwa ƙasa. Ya iya motsa alamar nuni ta kwamfuta (cursor) da gudanar da hannun robot mai sauƙi ta amfani da sigina daga microelectrode array da aka dasa a motor cortex ɗinsa. Ya nuna cewa ana iya karanta aikin jijiyoyi na son rai a matsayin siginar sarrafawa.

An gina a kan: Cochlear implant; Microprocessor

Ya kai ga: Cikakken nutsewar VR; Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya

Tushe: Hochberg et al., ‘Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia’, Nature 442 (2006)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=bci

Kayan kai na VR na zamani (2012–13 (kayan haɓaka); 2016 (masu amfani))

Oculus ta tara dala miliyan 2.4 a Kickstarter a 2012. Ta aika kayan haɓaka Rift DK1 daga ƙarshen March 2013. Rift na masu amfani ya biyo baya a 28 March 2016. Ta haɗa allunan da na’urorin ji na matakin waya da GPU da bin kai mai ƙarancin jinkiri. Hakan ya sa kayan kai na faffadan gani suka yi arha har suka dace da masu haɓaka da masu amfani.

An gina a kan: Head-mounted display; Na’urar sarrafa zane; Wayar salula mai wayo

Ya kai ga: Bin jiki a ɗaki

Tushe: Road to VR, ‘3 years ago the Oculus Rift DK1 shipped, here’s a quick look back’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=rift

Bin jiki a ɗaki (2015–2016)

HTC da Valve sun sanar da Vive a March 2015 kuma suka aika shi a 5 April 2016. Ya yi amfani da tsarin Lighthouse na Valve, wanda yake share laser infrared a filin wasa. Ana iya bin kayan kai da na’urorin sarrafawa na hannu biyu daidai a kusan mita huɗu. Tafiya da kaiwa hannu a cikin wurin kama-da-wane, ba juya kai kawai ba, ya zama ma’auni.

An gina a kan: Kayan kai na VR na zamani

Ya kai ga: Kayan kai masu zaman kansu

Tushe: Road to VR, ‘HTC, Valve and SteamVR: a 2015 retrospective and CES 2016 preview’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=roomscale

Kayan kai masu zaman kansu (2018–2019)

Oculus Quest (21 May 2019) kayan kai ne mai zaman kansa. Ya yi amfani da kyamarori huɗu don bin kayan kai da na’urorin sarrafawa biyu daga ciki, ba tare da PC ko tashoshin tushe ba. Na’urori masu zaman kansu na baya (Oculus Go, Lenovo Mirage Solo, Vive Focus, 2018) sun bi matsayin kai kawai a mafi yawa. Quest ya mayar da cikakken bin jiki mai ɗauka.

An gina a kan: Bin jiki a ɗaki; Wayar salula mai wayo

Ya kai ga: Cikakken nutsewar VR

Tushe: Road to VR, ‘Oculus announces Quest, the high-end standalone headset starting at $400’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=standalone

Neural rendering (2020–2023)

Neural Radiance Fields na Mildenhall et al. (2020) sun koyi wuri daga hotuna kuma suka zana sabbin ra’ayoyi nasa. 3D Gaussian Splatting (Kerbl et al., 2023) ya yi shi a lokaci-na-gaske. Yanzu ana iya ɗaukar wuraren 3D masu kama da hoton kyamara da za a iya bincika, ba a ƙirƙira su da hannu ba.

An gina a kan: Deep learning a GPUs; Na’urar sarrafa zane

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi masu mu’amala da aka samar; Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske

Tushe: Mildenhall et al., ‘NeRF: Representing scenes as neural radiance fields for view synthesis’, ECCV 2020, arXiv:2003.08934

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=neural-rendering

Duniyoyi masu mu’amala da aka samar (2024–2025)

A 2024, tsarin bincike kamar Genie na Google DeepMind da samfurin diffusion GameNGen sun samar da kowane firam na muhallin wasa daga shigarwar ɗan wasa. Ba su da injin wasa da aka rubuta da hannu. GameNGen ya kwaikwayi wasan Doom a sama da firam 20 a daƙiƙa. Zuwa 2025 nunin sun gudana na mintuna a gudun mu’amala. Har yanzu samfuran bincike ne.

An gina a kan: Tsarin Transformer; Neural rendering; Samfuran duniya da aka koya; Diffusion models

Tushe: Valevski et al., ‘Diffusion Models Are Real-Time Game Engines’ (GameNGen), arXiv:2408.14837 (2024)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=world-models

Hoto mai kama da hoton kyamara a lokaci-na-gaske (2029–2034 · Hasashe)

Mutanen masana’antu sun yi hasashen hotuna na lokaci-na-gaske da ba za ka iya bambanta da hotunan kyamara ba. A 2024 wani babban mai sayarwa ya bayyana tazarar shekaru 5 zuwa 10. Hasashen 2013 na shekaru goma don wannan mataki ɗaya ya cika a 2023. Babu wanda ya yi iƙirarin an cika shi.

An gina a kan: Neural rendering

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=photoreal

Cikakken nutsewar VR (2029–2030s · Hasashe)

Wani mai hasashen makomar gaba da aka san sunansa ya buga kwanaki don VR da yake aiki a matakin tsarin jijiyoyi. Ya sanya shi a ƙarshen 2020s zuwa 2030s, ta nanobots a kwakwalwa. Ba mu sami binciken ƙwararru ko hasashe mai zaman kansa na wannan mataki ba. Babu irin wannan tsari da aka nuna.

An gina a kan: Brain-computer interface; Kayan kai masu zaman kansu; Nanotechnology na molecule

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=fulldive

Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya (2050–2075 · Gada)

Yana kuma cikin Bishiyar kwaikwayo da Zama na roba.

Taswirar FHI ta 2008 ta yanke hukunci cewa kwaikwayo yana yiwuwa kafin tsakiyar ƙarni kawai idan samfuran matakin electrophysiological sun isa. Ƙarin cikakken bayani zai buƙaci kwanaki daga baya. Samfurin Monte Carlo na 2014 yana ba da matsakaici 2064, idan ya zo ko kaɗan. Matsakaicin al’ummar Metaculus kusan 2073 ne.

An gina a kan: Hankalin AI na matakin ɗan Adam; Brain-computer interface

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=wbe

Kwamfuta mai girman tauraro (kimanin 2250 ko bayansa · Hasashe)

Dyson (1960) ya ba da shawarar cewa wayewa masu ci gaba za su kama hasken tauraro. Bradbury (1997–99) ya faɗaɗa wannan zuwa kwasfa masu cikin juna da suke gudanar da kwamfutoci a kan zafin da tauraro ke watsarwa. Kiyasin da aka ba da kwanan wata da muka samu ɗaya ne kawai, na Bradbury. Kusan 2250 ne idan yanayin samar da silicon na yanzu ya ci gaba, kuma cikin dubban shekaru kaɗan a mafi yawa.

An gina a kan: Dokar Moore; Nanotechnology na molecule

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=matrioshka

Abacus (ba tabbatacce ba; allon ƙidaya na Mesopotamiya na shekara dubu ta 3 BC (ana jayayya); allon mafi tsufa da ya tsira kimanin 300 BC)

Allon ƙidaya, ko abacus, fili ne inda abubuwan ƙidaya suke wakiltar ƙimar wuri. Ta hanyar motsa su za ka iya haɗawa, ragewa, ninkawa da rarrabawa. Ana yawan iƙirarin misalan Mesopotamiya, amma babu wanda ya tsira kuma ana jayayya da iƙirarin. Allon mafi tsufa da ya tsira shi ne allon Salamis (kimanin 300 BC), ko da yake wasu suna ganinsa allon wasa ne. Yana nuna cewa ana iya mayar da lissafi zuwa yanayin zahiri da injin, daga baya da’ira, zai iya riƙewa.

Ya kai ga: Mai lissafi na inji

Tushe sun bar wannan kwanan wata ko da’awa ba tabbatacciya ba.

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Abacus’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=abacus

Sifili a matsayin lamba (628 CE (Brahmagupta); ɗigon mai riƙe wuri a baya, ana jayayya da kwanan wata · Shawara)

Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta na Brahmagupta (628 CE) shi ne rubutu mafi tsufa da ya tsira da ya ɗauki sifili a matsayin lamba mai dokokinta. Haɗawa ko ragewa sifili yana bar lamba ba canji. Lamba sau sifili sifili ne. Dokokinsa na rarrabawa da sifili ba su cika ba, kuma 0 ÷ 0 = 0 nasa kuskure ne. Ɗigon da ake amfani da shi a matsayin mai riƙe wuri ya bayyana a baya a rubutun Bakhshali. Amma kwanakin radiocarbon na shafukansa suna tsakanin ƙarni na 3–4 CE zuwa na 9–10. Don haka ana jayayya da kwanan sifilinsa.

Ya kai ga: Binary arithmetic; Algorithms (al-Khwārizmī)

Tushe: O’Connor and Robertson, ‘Brahmagupta’, MacTutor History of Mathematics (rules); Bodleian Libraries / University of Oxford, Bakhshali manuscript carbon dating release (2017) (dating caveat)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=zero

Algorithms (al-Khwārizmī) (kimanin 820s CE (asalin Larabci ya ɓace); Latin ƙarni na 12 · Shawara)

A farkon ƙarni na 9 a Baghdad, al-Khwārizmī ya rubuta bayani kan lambobin wurin-ƙima na Hindu, har da sifili, da lissafi da su. Rubutun Larabci ya ɓace. Fassarar Latin, Algoritmi de numero Indorum, an san ta ta bambanta sosai da shi. Ta cikinsa, da rubuce-rubucen algorismus na baya, lambobin Hindu-Larabci da lissafinsu na rubutu sun isa Turai. Kalmar ‘algorithm’ ta fito daga siffar sunansa ta Latin.

An gina a kan: Sifili a matsayin lamba

Ya kai ga: Mai lissafi na inji

Tushe: O’Connor and Robertson, ‘Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi’, MacTutor History of Mathematics (see also Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘al-Khwarizmi’ and ‘algorismus’)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=algorithm

Sarewa mai kunna kanta (Baghdad) (ƙarni na 9)

’Yan’uwan Banū Mūsā sun rubuta Book of Ingenious Devices a Baghdad na ƙarni na 9. Yana bayyana sarewa da take kunna kanta. Injin da ruwa ke tuƙawa yana tura iska zuwa bututun sauti a ƙarƙashin silinda mai juyawa, kuma musanya silindar yana canza waƙa. Koetsier (2001) ya ƙidaya ta a cikin injuna masu shirye-shirye mafi farko. Littafin Al-Jazari na 1206 yana bayyana automata na kiɗa na baya. Amma babu layi da aka rubuta daga ɗayan aikin zuwa ganga mai fil ta Turai ko keken saƙar Jacquard.

Tushe: Koetsier, ‘On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators’, Mechanism and Machine Theory 36(5), 2001, pp. 589–603; Hill (transl.), The Book of Ingenious Devices (Reidel, 1979)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=banu-musa-flute

Mai lissafi na inji (1642–1644)

Daga 1642 Blaise Pascal ya gina na’urar haɗawa mai gears don taimaka wa aikin harajin mahaifinsa. Ya yi kusan hamsin. Britannica ta kira ta na’urar lissafi ta farko da aka kera da yawa kuma aka yi amfani da ita. Lissafi ya koma daga hannu zuwa gears.

An gina a kan: Abacus; Algorithms (al-Khwārizmī)

Ya kai ga: Analytical Engine; Difference Engine

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Pascaline’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=pascaline

Binary arithmetic (1703 (an buga 1705) · Shawara)

A cikin rubutun da aka kwanan 15 March 1679 (De progressione dyadica), Leibniz ya tsara lissafi a tushe na biyu. Ya kuma zana injin lissafi ba tare da ƙafafu ba. A ciki, ƙwallaye suna faɗuwa ta ramuka da faifai masu zamewa suke buɗewa da rufewa, kuma hakan yana yin lissafin. Bai gina shi ba, ko da yake an yi samfuri mai aiki a Deutsches Museum a farkon 2000s. An karanta takardarsa a Paris Academy a 1703 kuma an buga a 1705. Hakanan yana haɗa alamar 0–1 da siffofin hexagram na Yijing, da ake danganta wa Fu Xi, waɗanda Joachim Bouvet ya aika masa daga Beijing (an karɓa April 1703). Wani tsarin Indiya na farko yana bayyana a Chandaḥśāstra na Piṅgala (kwanan wata ba tabbatacce, kusan ƙarni na 3 zuwa na 2 BCE). Yana lissafa mita na gajerun harafi da dogayen ta hanyar da masu karatu daga baya suka bincika a matsayin binary.

An gina a kan: Sifili a matsayin lamba

Ya kai ga: Zuse Z3

Tushe: Leibniz, ‘Explanation of Binary Arithmetic’ (1703), English translation

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=binary

Keken saƙa mai katin da aka huda (1804)

Keken saƙa na Joseph Marie Jacquard na 1804 ya yi amfani da jerin katunan da aka huda don zaɓar zaren warp da za a ɗaga. Don canza tsari, kana canza katunan. Bouchon (1725) da Falcon (1728) sun yi amfani da takarda ko katunan da aka huda kafin shi. Amma sigar Jacquard an karɓe ta sosai, kuma Babbage ya aro ra’ayin karanta kati.

Ya kai ga: Analytical Engine

Tushe: Science Museum Group, ‘Model of Falcon’s loom’ (Jacquard refined Falcon’s method in 1804)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=jacquard

Difference Engine (1822 (an ba da shawara); an gina 1991 · Ya tsaya)

Babbage ya ƙera injin don lissafi da buga tebura na lissafi ta hanyar finite differences. Zai cire kuskuren ɗan Adam daga lissafin. An nuna ƙaramin sashe mai aiki. Ba a gina cikakken injin a rayuwarsa ba.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: An dakatar da aiki a 1833 bayan jayayya da injiniyansa, Joseph Clement. Science Museum ta kammala Difference Engine No. 2 daga zane-zanensa a 1991. Hakan ya nuna ƙirar kanta tana da kyau.

An gina a kan: Mai lissafi na inji

Ya kai ga: Analytical Engine

Tushe: Science Museum, “Charles Babbage’s Difference Engines and the Science Museum”

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=difference-engine

Analytical Engine (1837 (an ƙirƙira 1834) · Ya tsaya)

Charles Babbage ya ƙera kwamfuta ta inji mai shirye-shirye. Tana da ma’ajiya, injin lissafi, rassa masu sharaɗi da umarni a katunan da aka huda. Ya hango tsarin kwamfutoci na baya da ƙarni. Sashen gwaji kawai aka gina kafin ya mutu a 1871.

Dalilin da ya sa ya tsaya: Ya tsaya domin yana buƙatar dubban sassa, kuma Birtaniya ta 1840s ba ta iya samar da ingantaccen aikin injiniya, kuɗi mai ɗorewa da tsari tabbatacce da hakan ya buƙata. Computer History Museum ta lissafa tsadar da ta wuce kima, buƙatun daidaito mai yawa, jayayya da injiniyansa da kuɗi mara tabbas.

An gina a kan: Keken saƙa mai katin da aka huda; Mai lissafi na inji; Difference Engine

Ya kai ga: Note G

Tushe: Computer History Museum, ‘Babbage: a brief history’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=analytical-engine

Note G (1843 · Shawara)

Ada Lovelace ta fassara takardar Menabrea kuma ta ƙara bayanai. Note G teburin ayyuka ne da aka yi aiki da shi don lissafin lambobin Bernoulli a Analytical Engine. Ta kuma lura cewa injin zai iya aiki a kan abubuwa ban da lamba, kamar tsara kiɗa, idan za a bayyana alaƙarsu. Wannan iƙirari na biyu shi ne bayanin farko mai bayyana cewa injin lissafi yana sarrafa alamomi, ba yawa kawai ba.

An gina a kan: Analytical Engine

Tushe: Menabrea and Lovelace, ‘Sketch of the Analytical Engine’, Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs (1843), text at Fourmilab

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=lovelace

Boolean logic (1847; 1854 · Shawara)

Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847) da An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854) na George Boole sun ɗauki maganganun hankali a matsayin algebra mai ƙima biyu. Hakan yana nufin ana iya lissafa tunani. Shannon daga baya ya nuna cewa da’irori suna aiwatar da wannan algebra. Don haka tsarin Boole ya zama tushen mantiki na kayan dijital.

Ya kai ga: Injin gama-gari; Mantiki a da’irori

Tushe: George Boole, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), Project Gutenberg

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=boole

Vacuum tube (1904–1907)

Valve mai lantarki biyu na John Ambrose Fleming (1904) ya mayar da siginar rediyo zuwa siffa mai amfani. Lee de Forest ya ƙara grid don yin Audion mai lantarki uku (1906–07), wanda zai iya ƙara ƙarfi da sauya siginar lantarki. Triode shi ne ɓangaren aiki na rediyo, waya da kwamfutocin lantarki na farko.

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Transistor; Colossus

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Thermionic valve’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=vacuum-tube

Injin gama-gari (1936–37 · Shawara)

‘On Computable Numbers’ na Alan Turing (an karanta a 1936, an buga 1936–37) ya ayyana injin na ƙa’ida. Ya nuna cewa injin gama-gari ɗaya zai iya yin aikin kowane injin, idan an ba shi bayanin wancan a matsayin shigarwa. Wannan shi ne dalilin ka’ida da kwamfuta ɗaya ta gama gari take iya gudanar da kowace duniyar kwaikwayo. Hakanan yana saita iyakokin abin da irin wannan kwaikwayo zai iya lissafawa.

An gina a kan: Boolean logic

Ya kai ga: Tsarin ajiyar shiri

Tushe: A. M. Turing, ‘On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem’, Proc. London Math. Soc. s2–42 (1937)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=turing

Mantiki a da’irori (1937–38 · Shawara)

Rubutun digiri na biyu na Claude Shannon a MIT (1937, an buga 1938) ya nuna cewa za a iya nazari da ƙera hanyoyin sadarwa na relays da switches da Boolean algebra. Ya haɗa dabarar tunani ta ƙa’ida da da’irori na zahiri. Injiniyoyi yanzu sun sami hanya tsararriya ta ƙera injunan dijital.

An gina a kan: Boolean logic

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta ta lantarki

Tushe: C. E. Shannon, ‘A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits’, MIT thesis (1937)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=shannon

Zuse Z3 (1941)

Konrad Zuse ya kammala Z3 a Berlin a 1941. Yana da relays kusan 2,400, tsarin lamba na binary da kalmomin floating-point na 22-bit. Ana karanta shirin a jere daga tef da aka huda. Shafin tarihi na IEEE Computer Society ya kira ta kwamfuta ta dijital ta farko ta lantarki-da-inji mai cikakken aiki da shirin ke sarrafa a duniya. Ba ta da rassa masu sharaɗi, kuma ta ajiye shirinta a wajen ma’ajiyar injin.

An gina a kan: Binary arithmetic

Tushe: IEEE Computer Society, ‘Konrad Zuse’, Computer Pioneers; Rojas, ‘Konrad Zuse’s Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3’, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 19(2), 1997

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=z3

Colossus (1943–44)

Injunan lantarki na Tommy Flowers a Bletchley Park sun karanta rubutun sirri daga tef na takarda. Sun yi amfani da valves (2,500 a Mark 2) don gano saitin ƙafafun sirrin Lorenz na Jamus. Na lantarki ne kuma za a iya saita su, amma an gina su don aiki ɗaya. An ɓoye su shekaru da yawa bayan yaƙin.

An gina a kan: Vacuum tube

Tushe: The National Museum of Computing, “Colossus”

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=colossus

Kwamfuta ta lantarki (1945–46)

An kammala ENIAC a University of Pennsylvania a 1945 kuma an sanar da jama’a a February 1946. Ya yi amfani da kusan vacuum tubes 18,000. Za ka iya sake haɗa wayoyinsa don warware matsalolin lamba iri-iri. Ya nuna cewa saurin lantarki yana yiwuwa don lissafi na gama gari. Amma sake shirya shi ya ɗauki kwanaki.

An gina a kan: Vacuum tube; Mantiki a da’irori

Ya kai ga: Tsarin ajiyar shiri

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘ENIAC’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=eniac

Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri (1945 (ƙira); 1948 (aiki na farko))

A 21 June 1948 Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (‘Baby’), da Williams da Kilburn suka gina, ya gudanar da shirinsa na farko daga ma’ajiyarsa ta lantarki. Shirin ya kasance umarni 17 kuma ya nemo mafi girman factor na lamba. Ajiye umarni da bayanai a ma’ajiya ɗaya shi ne ke ba software damar canzawa a saurin lantarki. Hakanan shi ne ke ba da damar a ɗora kwaikwayo.

An gina a kan: Tsarin ajiyar shiri

Ya kai ga: Hanyar sadarwa ta fakiti; Zane mai mu’amala; Simulacron-3; Wasannin bidiyo na farko; Aspen Movie Map; Colossal Cave Adventure

Tushe: University of Manchester, ‘Manchester Baby computer’ (Computer 50 archive)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=stored-program

Tsarin ajiyar shiri (1945 · Shawara)

First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC na John von Neumann ya bayyana kwamfuta da take ajiye shirinta a ma’ajiya ɗaya da bayananta. Kusan kowace kwamfuta tun daga lokacin ta yi amfani da wannan tsari.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta ta lantarki; Injin gama-gari

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Tushe: von Neumann, First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (30 June 1945), Internet Archive

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=edvac

Transistor (1947–48)

John Bardeen da Walter Brattain sun nuna transistor na point-contact a Bell Laboratories a December 1947. William Shockley ya ƙirƙiri sigar junction jim kaɗan bayan haka. Su uku sun raba Nobel Prize a Physics na 1956. Mai ƙara ƙarfi da sauyawa ne na solid-state ba tare da dumama ko vacuum ba. Kwamfutoci sun zama ƙanana, masu sauri kuma masu aminci fiye da da.

An gina a kan: Vacuum tube

Ya kai ga: Integrated circuit

Tushe: Nobel Prize in Physics 1956, summary

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=transistor

Integrated circuit (1958–59)

Jack Kilby a Texas Instruments ya gina integrated circuit mai aiki a September 1958. Robert Noyce a Fairchild ya ƙirƙiri sigar silicon ta planar da za a iya kerawa a 1959. Kilby ya raba Nobel Prize a Physics na 2000. Sanya sassa da yawa a kan abu ɗaya ya sa lantarki mai sarƙaƙiya ya zama mai arha. Hakan ya kafa haɓakar ƙarfin lissafi.

An gina a kan: Transistor

Ya kai ga: Dokar Moore; Microprocessor; Wasan bidiyo na arcade; Virtual Boy

Tushe: Nobel Prize in Physics 2000, Jack S. Kilby facts

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=ic

Dokar Moore (1965 (an sake duba 1975) · Shawara)

A cikin labarin April 1965 a Electronics, Gordon Moore ya lura cewa adadin abubuwa ga kowane integrated circuit ya ninka kusan kowace shekara. Ya hasasshe wannan yanayi na shekaru goma. A 1975 ya canza ƙimar zuwa kusan kowace shekara biyu. Hasashen ya tabbata kusan shekaru hamsin. Ya saita saurin da duniyoyin kwaikwayo za su iya ƙara wadata.

An gina a kan: Integrated circuit

Ya kai ga: Kwamfuta mai girman tauraro; Nanotechnology na molecule; Reversible computing

Tushe: Computer History Museum, ‘Moore’s Law predicts the future of integrated circuits’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=moores-law

Hanyar sadarwa ta fakiti (1969)

ARPANET ta aika saƙonta na farko daga mai masauki zuwa mai masauki daga UCLA zuwa SRI a 29 October 1969. Ƙananan kwamfutoci da ake kira IMPs ne suka tura fakitin. Ta girma ta zama hanyar sadarwar bincike ta ƙasa. Wuraren kama-da-wane da aka raba suna buƙatar injuna da suke musayar bayanai a lokaci-na-gaske. ARPANET ita ce babbar hanyar sadarwa ta farko da aka gina a kan packet switching.

An gina a kan: Kwamfuta mai ajiyar shiri

Ya kai ga: Duniyar sadarwa ta mutum na farko; Duniyar rubutu da aka raba; Intanet

Tushe: Computer History Museum, ‘October 29, 1969: Happy 40th birthday to a radical idea’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=arpanet

Microprocessor (1971)

Intel 4004 ya fito a November 1971. Hoff, Mazor, Faggin da Shima ne suka ƙera shi don na’urar lissafi ta Busicom. Ya sanya na’urar sarrafawa ta tsakiya mai shirye-shirye a chip ɗaya. Lissafi na gama gari ya zama mai arha har ya dace da injunan kai, consoles kuma, daga ƙarshe, wayoyi.

An gina a kan: Integrated circuit

Ya kai ga: Na’urar sarrafa zane; Wayar salula mai wayo; Duniyoyin 3D na lokaci-na-gaske; Brain-computer interface

Tushe: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Intel 4004’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=microprocessor

Intanet (1983)

A January 1983 ARPANET ta koma ƙa’idodin TCP/IP. Su ne harshen gama gari da ke ba hanyoyin sadarwa daban damar haɗuwa. Duniyoyin kan layi da aka raba suna gudana a kan wannan hanyar sadarwa ta hanyoyin sadarwa.

An gina a kan: Hanyar sadarwa ta fakiti

Ya kai ga: World Wide Web

Tushe: Computer History Museum, “Internet History of 1980s”

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=internet

World Wide Web (1989–1991)

Tim Berners-Lee ya ba da shawarar tsarin hypertext mai haɗi a CERN a March 1989. Zuwa ƙarshen 1990 yana da sabar da browser na farko suna aiki a can. Ya sanar da software ga jama’a a August 1991. Ya sa Intanet ta zama mai amfani ga waɗanda ba ƙwararru ba. Ya zama hanyar gama gari ta kaiwa wuraren kan layi da aka raba.

An gina a kan: Intanet

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi na kan layi masu dorewa

Tushe: CERN, ‘A short history of the Web’

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=web

Na’urar sarrafa zane (1999)

GeForce 256 na Nvidia (October 1999) ya sanya transformation da lighting a chip ɗaya. An sayar da shi a matsayin na’urar sarrafa zane ta farko. Hakan ya cire aikin kowane pixel da vertex daga CPU. Kayan zane na daidaici mai arha shi ne ya sa duniyoyin 3D na lokaci-na-gaske suka isa. Daga baya ya yi haka ga lissafi na jijiyoyi mai girma.

An gina a kan: Microprocessor

Ya kai ga: General-purpose GPU computing; Kayan kai na VR na zamani; Neural rendering

Tushe: NVIDIA press release, ‘NVIDIA launches the world’s first graphics processing unit: GeForce 256’ (1999)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=gpu

General-purpose GPU computing (2006–2007)

Nvidia ta sanar da CUDA a 2006 kuma ta fitar da shi a June 2007. Ya bar masu shirye-shirye su rubuta lambar shirye-shirye ta yau da kullum mai kama da C don dubban zaren daidaici na GPU. Kayan zane ya zama kwamfuta ta daidaici ta gama gari. Wannan shi ne ya sa horar da manyan hanyoyin sadarwa na jijiyoyi ya yiwu daga baya.

An gina a kan: Na’urar sarrafa zane

Ya kai ga: Deep learning a GPUs

Tushe: Nickolls, Buck, Garland and Skadron, ‘Scalable Parallel Programming with CUDA’, ACM Queue 6(2) (2008)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=gpgpu

Wayar salula mai wayo (2007)

Apple ta sanar da iPhone a January 2007 kuma ta fitar da ita a June. Ta sanya allon taɓawa, na’urar sarrafawa mai ƙarfi da na’urorin motsi a na’ura ta aljihu, kuma samar da waɗannan sassa da yawa ya biyo baya. Sakamakon shi ne samar da allunan nuni masu yawan pixel da araha, na’urorin motsi da chips na wayar hannu. Hakan ya sa kayan kai na masu amfani suka yiwu.

An gina a kan: Microprocessor

Ya kai ga: Kayan kai na VR na zamani; Kayan kai masu zaman kansu

Tushe: Apple Newsroom, ‘Apple reinvents the phone with iPhone’ (9 January 2007)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=smartphone

Deep learning a GPUs (2012)

A September 2012 AlexNet ya ci gasar rarraba hoto ta ImageNet da tazara mai girma. Hanyar sadarwa ce ta convolutional da Krizhevsky, Sutskever da Hinton suka horar a GPUs biyu. Sakamakon ya nuna cewa manyan hanyoyin sadarwa na jijiyoyi da aka horar a kayan aiki masu daidaici suna doke hanyoyin da aka gina da hannu a ayyukan ji.

An gina a kan: General-purpose GPU computing

Ya kai ga: Tsarin Transformer; Neural rendering; Samfuran duniya da aka koya; Diffusion models

Tushe: Krizhevsky, Sutskever and Hinton, ‘ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks’, NeurIPS 25 (2012)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=deep-learning

Tsarin Transformer (2017)

Vaswani da abokan aiki a Google sun gabatar da Transformer a 2017. Hanyar sadarwa ce da aka gina a kan attention. Tana sarrafa jerin abubuwa a daidaici kuma tana girma da kyau tare da bayanai da ƙarfin lissafi. Ita ce tsarin bayan manyan samfuran harshe, waɗanda za su iya samar da hali na buɗaɗɗen tattaunawa.

An gina a kan: Deep learning a GPUs

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi masu mu’amala da aka samar; Hankalin AI na matakin ɗan Adam

Tushe: Vaswani et al., ‘Attention Is All You Need’, NeurIPS (2017), arXiv:1706.03762

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=transformer

Samfuran duniya da aka koya (2018)

Ha da Schmidhuber sun horar da hanyar sadarwa ta jijiyoyi don ƙirƙirar samfurin muhallin wasa. Sannan suka horar da wakili a cikin sigar da samfurin ya yi tunani. Yanzu ana iya koyon duniya ta kallo, ba a rubuta ta da hannu ba.

An gina a kan: Deep learning a GPUs

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi masu mu’amala da aka samar

Tushe: Ha and Schmidhuber, “World Models”, arXiv:1803.10122 (2018)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=learned-worlds

Diffusion models (2020)

Ho, Jain da Abbeel sun nuna cewa hanyar sadarwa da aka horar don cire hayaniya mataki-mataki za ta iya samar da hotuna masu inganci daga shigarwa ba tare da tsari ba. Hanyar tana ƙarƙashin yawancin masu samar da hoto, bidiyo da duniyoyi masu mu’amala na baya.

An gina a kan: Deep learning a GPUs

Ya kai ga: Duniyoyi masu mu’amala da aka samar

Tushe: Ho, Jain and Abbeel, “Denoising Diffusion Probabilistic Models”, arXiv:2006.11239 (2020)

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=diffusion

Nanotechnology na molecule (2010–2030s · Hasashe)

Masu hasashe a 1990s–2000s sun ba da kwanan watan haɗa molecule mai shirye-shirye da nanobots masu shiga kwakwalwa zuwa 2010–2029. An yi hasashen haɗa diamondoid na 2010–2015 kuma ba a nuna shi ba. Don haka wannan rikodin kwanaki ne da suka wuce.

An gina a kan: Dokar Moore

Ya kai ga: Cikakken nutsewar VR; Kwamfuta mai girman tauraro

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=nanotech

Hankalin AI na matakin ɗan Adam (2027–2047 · Hasashe)

Hasashen injuna da suke doke mutane a kowane aiki sun fito daga 2026–2030, a maganganun shugabannin dakunan gwaje-gwajen AI, zuwa matsakaicin 2047 a binciken 2023 na masu bincike 2,778. Kwanakin da binciken ke bayarwa sun matso da wuri a hankali. Sun ba da 2040–2050 a 2012–13, 2060 a 2022 da 2047 a 2023.

An gina a kan: Tsarin Transformer

Ya kai ga: Kwaikwayon kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya; Superintelligence

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=agi

Reversible computing (2027–2040 · Hasashe)

Reversible logic yana guje wa mafi ƙarancin makamashin Landauer da ake kashewa wajen goge bits. Ana ba da shawararsa a matsayin hanyar lissafi mai yawa ga kowace watt. Wani startup ya hasasshe chip na inference na farko a 2027 da ƙaruwar inganci ninki 4,000 shekaru 10 zuwa 15 bayan haka. Hira da ƙwararre na 2014 bai tsammaci amfani mai yawa zuwa 2030 ba.

An gina a kan: Dokar Moore

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=reversible

Superintelligence (2027–2045+ · Hasashe)

Ƙwararrun da aka bincika suna tsammanin superintelligence cikin shekaru 30 bayan hankalin injin na matakin ɗan Adam. Marubutan yanayi da Kurzweil suna ba da kwanaki tsakanin 2027 da 2045. Masu bincike da aka bincika a 2023 sun sanya yiwuwar mai yawa amma ba mafi rinjaye ba ga “fashewar hankali” mai sauri.

An gina a kan: Hankalin AI na matakin ɗan Adam

Adireshi: /trees/technology?n=asi